ΣΗΜΕΙΩΣΕΙΣ ΟΠΤΟΗΛΕΚΤΡΟΝΙΚΗΣ

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1 ΠΑΝΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΙΟ ΑΙΓΑΙΟΥ ΣΧΟΛΗ ΘΕΤΙΚΩΝ ΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΩΝ ΤΜΗΜΑ ΜΗΧΑΝΙΚΩΝ ΠΛΗΡΟΦΟΡΙΑΚΩΝ & ΕΠΙΚΟΙΝΩΝΙΑΚΩΝ ΣΥΣΤΗΜΑΤΩΝ ΣΗΜΕΙΩΣΕΙΣ ΟΠΤΟΗΛΕΚΤΡΟΝΙΚΗΣ ΝΙΚΟΣ ΚΟΝΟΦΑΟΣ ΕΠΙΚΟΥΡΟΣ ΚΑΘΗΓΗΤΗΣ ΣΥΝΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ-ΕΠΙΜΕΛΕΙΑ ΑΝΤΩΝΗΣ ΒΡΑΝΑΚΗΣ ΜΗΧΑΝΙΚΟΣ ΠΛΗΡΟΦΟΡΙΑΚΩΝ & ΕΠΙΚΟΙΝΩΝΙΑΚΩΝ ΣΥΣΤΗΜΑΤΩΝ ΣΑΜΟΣ

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50 2.7 "/ (1 "#,&,#*/ #/( ''*/ # #$.#$ )#& */!" #+/ ''-%!/-%. $ (1 / "!/1 Czochralski. 3/% #$% #/+ ''% Si 1 Ge #98 1,# Si 1 Ge "/ (/-! / + # #1!+" 1cm/h 1 / $ ($ # ( 1,#% ''+/ / #/+ '' /(/ "/ #1 (.!$% + ''% - / -! $ (/$/ '! % )#& %, (-% /,/ // /!"# #$ ( ( ''( #-.%, "/ (1 (&/ 1 &/ "#,&,#*/ /& */ / " #-.% 9% :+)"%. +#*/ # " #-. (1 ''"'" #+' $!'8 /$ /#,/+/! (. '- (/ "/ -/* " # "/ ''"'"!#.#// ''"' +/ C /* $ "# 1)"% ( + "(!(. "# ($ ".# #-/.1 #-! / ''"*. " / ". " (/-!, "#-% #-/(/ 50 # 10 0 C * $ "# 1)"% "/ (/-!:+!" #+' # '+,$ (.#$ (8 + ''% 2.8 "#,*, '+/ /.#-' '. "% #"'/1% //"'/1%. 4" #+/ % "'/-% "'/-% )% / /8, ''"*#-/ ('&# / "'', ('. -% #,-% */ "#,*,&/,/ $#/. <'% "#,*,% )% 9 8/,,/$% $ ",*,#$" ( ('+ '-,! # "/ (,-/* " */ #)*/ 1 # / #9'' ##,'"!1 #&/ / ''8 $!1!1 /* " )" ) %.) p-n % 1% p-n / (/1.*% -/% + ''% Ge 1 Si # #)% +( p #!1 +( n #/ ''" 1 + "#,*, -/% p +( $*% Cu 2 O -/% n +( TiO 2. $,*!( "% -% $ "!1 p #9/(/ "/!1 n "'$/ $ "/!1 n "/!1 p. "'$/ ( +,(/ $ "/!1 n ( ( ''(!-/ "/!1 p 1/(/ #-/ # ( $" ( '+/ '-/ /". $/ "/!1 p /* "'$/ '#9/(/ %.- % */ &/ # ( -" 8(/ /" # ( '+/ & /" /" $/ "/!1 p.!1 (1 /#8 %(4+.4(!0& +-(4* 1 %(4+ %11%05%).4('& -' # / " "#(, #% /1%!1% "% %(4+) %.) # "'$ $ "/!1 n "/!1 p (!-4-8). 1 "/!1 "% 1% / (!(/ '+. % " &!0!/ %.) / #,'". </ #$ (# )*$ "'$ #,'+ /. $ "'$

51 ( (/#+ 1% $ (/#$ "!1 p. - / / #,'+ $ (/#$ "/!1 n. H +/ " (1 /#8 4(, 21/ " ( "'+ ( $ p n % $ "/!1 p -!/ "!1 n "'$/ $ "/!1 n -!/ "/!1 p 3 & (!(/ '+. % "/!1 "% 1% " / " 1%. /!!#"'1 +# "/.1 $'* ". / #,'. (1 " 1 (/!4 4(,2 (%8$. "/ /." * " $/ " $'* " / &#!(4./ -% $ "/!1 p / #+/ / + (/ "/!1 n. (#9/ # "'$/.#$% */ "'/*/ "!1 p / '+ #$% #$/ $ $ 9'-/ $ #"!/ #$ "% /,/+%,*,#$"% $ -(/ /!(.+/ $ "/!1 n. "/ * " (1 " / " "% 1%. / #,'". 3 "/ / " $'* " " 1 /,. #-/*% "/ / " $'* " " 1 '(, / #/*1% #-/*% /'' $#/ +# / /.*1% + - #$/ "/ # +.(/ " "/ #"#. </!+, pp=nn, $( p P " (,-/* " */ -*/ '/$"% "/ p!1 n N " (,-/* " */ -*/ '/$"% "/ n!1 $ " 1 /#8 *$$%!(".!+ p P >> n N 1 p P << n N $ " 1 /#8 8$$%!(/. "/ )"!" #+/ +##% -% % % " % (,/& % (#/ $ 100 -*% %. +# # 1 p-n / $ "/!- " ( Shockley " ' / /$# "% /1% $( 1%, $( #!" 1.1 "% )"%, +# $(, e ( "'/(, k ". ( Boltzmann T " $'(".#. +# $( ) "#/ $ "/.# +#*/ # "!- " #-/*% +# 1% ()/ "#/ # "/.# " " "%.# % %!" -% -V / "#/1. "!- " ( ) "/ / " $'* " " " / -V. Si +# $( / 0.01# (/#$ *'( 0.6V, /&, Ge +# $( / 10# (/#$ *'( 0.2V

52 " V +# / / #$ "#.&% V,/ #,' /"$ +#,,8 "/ #1 -.!" 1 I-V #% 1% p-n /!1#. "/ * " ( " / " " (9 # #" #1 ( /#8!#/ 7# /) "!#((%*/) 7#!(//) V b (breakdown voltage) " 1 / '(, '-/ / /.*1%!1 -V ( "% /, $ "/ ( ). % ( '+/ "/ " "% $( / ) " ( 1 " " Zener </ " -/ " ( "'+ (,/ '+ #,'" "% )"% ( 10 6 V cm -1 $ / (/$/ / '9!& #* "% "'/*/ $ "/ /.-/(% "/ /,*,#$"% '$,* ( 9/#"!/+ /#-/( "% +,,%. / $ ($ / (/$/ / ()".+/ % #/$"% "/ p!1, "'1 "'$/ / ()". "#/ / +#. ) " "!/ 9% "/ " (1 "'$/!+// (,+/# (- # /8(/ # /$#/!/ 9% ''' 8(/ (% '+.(% % # -' # "/ #/ "#,'"%-/ "% +#% ).#1 " "/ 1 ( / ( +#% " &' "'1% /-,%.#$" * $ (/.1% (:"'1% / "% "% (/' "/ +)" " "%.# % 1% " # " "% ' +)" " ( / ( +#%.. -*% $( " 1 / /.! / (/. # # #,'" / " " / 8 +# #-% #$% #% #-, "% #1%

53 ) Zener #. #-/" " "% ( (8/, / '(,+/ ' "/!1 ( "% /#8/ Zener. / /$ $ -!(/ "/ $" / "+/ "/ " (%!$/.1, #,'% #9'-% +#%!" #+/, "/ */ ('*#*/. " "% (.#8 # "/ (,-/* " */ #)*/. Si (#/ $ V.!1# 4.9 / "!" 1 I- V #% $( Zener ) %.) (8 $ #/+ '' + '' Si # #)% In 1 $ #/+ '' Ge # #)% B 1 Al.!*"$" 1% / "% )*% */ 10pF "'1 #,'" $ / # /!" #". ('&# (:"'&/ (!/1*/ /* $ 100KHz. 4" #,-." */ $*/ Si / V b =1.5 -*% 2 KV, #-, ".# '(,% ^^=150 0 C /& /!!" #,-." "% $( Ge / V b =100 -*% 400V, #-, ".# '(,% ^^=80. 0 C

54 ) 8() (Tunnel Diode) +,,% -!(/ '+ #,'.#$ #)*/ #/" 3!- " # "/ (,-/* " #)*/ #/cm 3 */ /&/ $*/. $,* "% #,'"% (1% (,-/* " */ #)*/ ( 9/#"!/+ /#-/( +,,% /,-%.#% */ #)*/ /,// /,-% /% $ /&// # % /% ( "#,*,+ # -' # " /,1 #1 ( "#,*,+ / '" 8 "/ /,1 #1 #''(. -' # / "!" 1 +#% "% / #/8!1 # /"1 1 / ". "% "!1 1% ( 8 '+ #1!*"$" 1%. % +,,%!" # / /!+ / '/*1% /& / #/!" #". / /.& ',474 "!"%*) %.-& p-n! 9 -% #-. (1% &/ -" 1/: () " 1 #-.%!"# #+ &/ " /()"% #/( ''&/ "#,*,&/ ('&/ (.) " #-.%!"# #+ &/ # #" ". + (-% #-. //,## $#/!1#

55 "/ &" #-.!"# #+ &/, " "% /()"% */ #/( ''*/./ 1,# ( "#,*,+ #)*/ #-/( +(.!. +(. "# "% /()"% ( #/( ''( " (,-/* " */ #)*/ 1,# #9'' $# # "/ $. "

56 $"% #)*/ ", # -' # ($' ( #/( ''( / / +( ". "/ /()" */ #/( ''*/,# $9 ''"' '#9/(/ "/ 1 #-.% (1 $#*% / / ''"'", #81,*,1 "/ " 9#"!/. " #-.!"# #+ &/ # #" ", -/ "#,*,+ ('+ +( ". #$,('+ ( '#9/ #)% +( p " (/-! (.#// & #-% ( ( /!"# # # "#,*,$ '. "/ :+)" ( ( ''( /( ''+ % ) #-/ # #)% +( p $*% /!1#, -!"#8 " 1 p-n. #-.% (1! /!" #". # #,'" (!, " #81,*,1 $*/ /8. 0'"/ $#*%, ()/$#/% 1 %, $ / " '(, */ /8 - " / /-% % (/#% "% #.$( (1%. ($%,/%,/% (.8 "/ '(, ( /8 &/ / " $ " #)+ */ + &/ "/ /* #-. ".- " */ &/.8 $!% */ /( ''*.-/*/ *#*/, $#*% / / +' / ',!. # 9. / 91 -',! "%.- "% */ &/ p-n, " -(/ 1," " #-. "% " $*/ #)*/ #- / "#,*,$. "/ * " (1 " / ( '(. # ",1 #,'"% (,-/* "% #)*/ +( /.( /( */ #)*/ ( '( 0/&%, / '#9/!& #!"# #$% */ #- "#,*,$ ', '' #)% +(/ #- / + '' #!( ", " / (/$/ / ',!. # #,'" 9. /'(:" $ -/ '$ &# SiO 2 9'' "#/1 / " "!( " */ $*/ #)*/, &/ &/, $. $#" #,'+" 9 / -',! "%,*#% */ "#,*,&/ )*/.,*# #% )"% / (/$/ /. # '(:" ( "#,*,+ # SiO 2 " (/-! # -. " % #)% #-/*/!&/ ( "#,*,+ $ % % -! #(/. SiO 2.!-% ((-%.8/ # "!1 " "%!/1% ( /,/* 1 / #&!. "!/', /,##!1#. #-.% (1 (/(8 '/1# "% #.$(!"# #+ &/ #!( " # "/ $" ( SiO /,+ "!( " $*/ #)*/ #- ( (+ - - / 91. #$ "%,*#% */ )*/. "%, "!/', (1 #''+,,/$% $ "'-% $"% #% /% Si, " -! '(. # SiO 2, / '+ /&% $ /% ( / -!(/ '(. # SiO 2. ($ / $ " "!/', 1," "/ /()" */ ''"*#-/*/ ('*#*/, '+/ " +" / " "/ '/1 # "/ #/ " ( '!

57 2.8.3 Transistors / -% n-p-n 1 p-n-p. transistor 1% (8 $ #/+ '' / "#(,+/ + p-n -%.!1# 4-11 / " "#,*,1 )" p-n-p ( ' transistor p-n-p.&% +#9'$ (.!1# / " "#,*,1 )" n-p-n ( ' transistor n-p-n.&% +#9'$ (. # $ % %!-% (/1.*%" 1 /#8 " 4$ 2) ()"#!1 / " #/ () " ''" " ) ' *11'"!/) (C). +#9 " #$% (#9'8 # -/ 9-'% ( -! " */ &/ </ #$% -! -% " 9 " $ 9-'%!/ % (1 /& $/ -! "'$/ " 9 " 9-'%. -! $ " 9 " / #$. '(, ( transistor p-n-p /!1# / " +/ " */ )*&/ &/,^ "' */!&/ 1% #+ -9 "% 9 "% - (''-" / /.. 0'&//% "/!1 1% #+ - "%. "%- (''-" / -!(# #* " ( "'+ ( "%!1% 1% ( #+ /!" #* " ( (/#+ 1% #+ - 9 "%. /! # "/ / " $'* " "/!1 1% (''-" - "% -!(# +)" " ( "'+ ( "%!1% 1% 9 "% - (''-" /!" +)" " ( (/#+ 1% 9 " (''-",- & ^^^^. / $ ($ '!( " &/ " 9 " #- * ( #+ ( /! -/ (%8$ %" 4$ 48 IE. (,-/* " */ &/ "% 9 "% ()/ -%!-/ % "/!1 1% ( (''-". $#*% -!/ '-% (/#% F 2 '$,* ( "'+ ( E pn2,!+// /+/ "/!1 ( (''-" "#(,&/% -/ (%8$ *11'"!/ IC "/ -) ( transistor. To (%8$!/) 6#/) -! $ "/ /'1* " */ "'/*/, (!// ) % "% / +/ "% (% # % -%, $ "/ / /-% $ $/ / (! +# +'*# ( #+ +# +'*# ( (''-" / '+ #$, " " "% 1% 9 "% (''-" -! / ". / $ ($ +# +'*# ( (''-" '-,! $ +# +'*# #$+.!+,

58 / 9 1 #% ( transistor ' '91 +#% #-,.% #-,.% ( " (,-/* " */ -*/ '/$"% "/!1 ( #+ / '+ #,'+" $ "/ (,-/* " */ -*/ '/$"% "!1 "% 9 "%. 3 % '/$"% "/!1 ( #+ / '+ $ $ (% % '/$"% "% 9 "% # -' # / -!(# I C <I E <1 # #-% $ *% / transistor #!1 1% 9 "% 1#.1 $'* " 0.2V / " $'* " 5V -*% 10V / #-% $ *% =32 #-! 99. $ '$,* "% ( ) I C =99 I B. '3 # #1 #9'1 ( +#% " 9 " /!+ # "/ $'" " #% #,'"% #9'1% ( +#% (''-". transistor # / $ ($ # / '(,1 / /!(1% +#%. / #)+ #+ 9 "% #$ (# # " U E (1. '- '',1 ( "'+ ( ' - " #9'1 ( (/#+ "%!1% /# / #$ " 9 ". (1 " #9'1. / /'," "% #9'1% ( 1#% U E. 3 "!( " */ &/ $ / #$ " 9 ". '(.1 (.#$ "% #9'1% ( 1#% U E. 3. -!(# '',1 "%,*,#$"% "% 1% (1%, # /!( " "%!( "% */ &/ $ / #$ " 9 " +)" " ( +#% ( (''-" I C. +# ($ - "/ / " R C ' & " "% " / " " )$( ( transistor. 1 " 1 p-n ( (''-" - 9 " / / '*#-/" #/8 #,'" / " 1%. 3 #+# / (/- (# / " R C # #,'+" #1 / -!(# #,'" " )$( "/ Rc!- " # "/ " V e $(. 3 #+# / -!(# /!( " "% /!( "!+% "/ -)

59 Transistor %704* (Field Effect Transistor) 0'',1 ( transistor ' transistor ( (!1# 4-12). 3/ ' Si +( p ( /#8 /' - "/ # ( / +!-% +( n ( /#8/ ",1 (source) 1 (drain)..-/ #$8 -/% #''$% -"% (terminal). '(. /* "/ / -/ #/*$ &# SiO2 /* $ ($ -/ #''$ "'$ " +'" (gate) </ / (! "/ +'" #$ (# (/#+ # 1 '$" #)+ +'"% 1% +# / '+ #$ 1 # $ % -% p-n / / '*#-/". " (/-! 8(# "/ +'" #.$. ('$ +( p / (!(/ '' "'$/ (!/ $ "/ /,/1,*,#$" -'/ % "/ +'". /' " +'" '+/ (% ' #+% /$% (/*1 # "'$ SiO 2..&% ()/.$ (/#$ "% +'"% ()/ " (,-/* " */ "'/*/ /' # -' #/ ()/ ",*,#$" /'

60 / & #$ (# (/#+ /# "/ ",1 "/ 1 $ '$,* "% (:"'1%,*,#$"% /' - $ +# #1% (. +# ($ # / ''8 ''8/% "/ " "/ +'" '$,* "% '',1% "%,*,#$"% /'. +# ($ / '+ (." (/#$ "% +'"%. )" '(, *% /!(1%. "#,*,1 )" (,:# /#8 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor MOSFET. MOSFET / # "#,*,1 )" &/ &/ "/ +# /# + -% '-,! # #,'" 9 ''8/% (/#$ / -" "1/($'& "*"1-$!.!1 /$. " *#*/ ('&/!"#1,!)" #&/ +#% / (/$/ / +!(# (/( #-/" '(, ''&/ MOSFET, (/*&/, / &/ /* -/,*/ #! ('+ #,-.(% ',*/ mm. - " (1% "% -% -! ",1 ''"*#-/ ('&# #,'"% '#%( ^) "/ ''1* " '+ #,'"% '#% (VLSI)

61 2.8.5 %($0!4( (Thermistor).# (Thermally Temperature Resistors) #''($# "/ )" " "% 1% / "% */ "#,*,&/ $ "/.#. / )1# ( (8/ $ "#,&,# ('. +#*/ # $ "# (.#+ (/' 1 / "%.# // ) NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) #.#$ (/' 1 / "% /"$ ) PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) #.#$ (/' 1 / "%.$ NTC.# " )" " "% / "% # "/.# / $ "!- ", $( R0, #!1 #1 "% / "% (.# "/ (/1.*% "/.# 9''/%. $ "/!- " (1 / $ " / " '&/ ()/#-/"% "%.# %.!- " (1 /!1# 4-13.# '(,% */ NTC / )/ (% C. NTC!" #+/, $*/ "'&/ "'/&/ )"#*/ 1 ( 8(/ #,'" / " :(!1 " +(/ +'*# "/!1 ( '(,% ( - & / #"/ () #,' +# +'*# 1 #-/ "'', )1# ( 8(/ #1 / " '$,* (.+.#+ (/' 1 / "% (%..&% ()/ ".# '$,* '(,% ( ('&#% + /..# (/' -% / "% /.#8/ " -/ " ( +#% #-/.. 4" #+/ "/ 9.# $("% * "% */ &/ "'+ 1#%, "." " (

62 '(% "% * "%, (% #"-%.# %, (%.#+% $% '-,!(.'.. NTC (8/ # / % # #-% $ (8/ $ MnO,Fe3O 4 #,# "'1 #''*/ Mn, Cr, Co,Ni, Fe. PTC -!(/ / " ( #9'' # ".# $*%!1#

63 $!1# 4-11 / $ %!#"'-%.# %.#$% (/' 1% / "% # / / /"$% +/ /!" #".+/ / NTC, #!1.# &/. 4" #+/ $,/ #-" "%.# % # '+ #,'" 9 $*% ('&#." "% ( +#%. (8/ # $# $ $*% NTC, $ BaTiOs, SrTiOs

64 2.8.6! (Varistor) Varistor (Voltage Dependent Resistors)!" -% +#% "% / #",##-%. / " ) $ "/ #8$#/" "!.!1# 4-15 / "!" 1 I -V " )" " "% / "% $ "/ " -/ Varistor.&% "!+% /'* "% P (/" " # "/ " V. / #/* ( "'+ (!#"'1% -/ "%, " '(( ''$" $% /' #$% */ $*/ #8(/ "/ #/" " */ /#,/+% $(%. 0/* $#*% $ -/ &' -/ "% "'+ ( " /" " */ "'/*/,/ $*% / ( ''$ ('$ " / " '&/.. Varistor!"8 $ # #-, " $#/" " '(,% (-9 " "% % ' 1 "% ( ''1% #1% " (1 (#/ $ 8V-1300V. H #-, " #1 ( +#% (#/ $ 1 -*% 100 ma. 4" #+/, "." " "% "% 1, ( (&/ $ (- ". (8/ $ /.(, ) Zn Ti

65 2.9 & 2.9.1!" 4((2.// '+ "#/1!/1, " #-" " ( /,+! #% /$% "#,*,+ / " $" " "'/( $ ('$. ($ # "+# *$/ $ ',#-/ #1" +#% / (.+// '1!1 # " $*/ */*/. #-/( $, *$/ # /-, #,'+" $ /,$! # +/ ''"' # "/ # " */*/ ##$" #1 /-,% $ /,$! #, / /"$ $ # ($ / -/ 9-% #- ( /,+! #%. / /-% $ -/ *$/ # /-, hv>= Eg # / ". -// "#,*,$ (!. 1.1 ). #-/( $ " 8&/".-/(% -! '' "'$/ " 8&/",*,#$"% -! ''-% /-%.- % % % "'$/ #+/ /,.+/, $ "./$" $" "% */*/ / (:"'1. <*% /!1# 1.1, -/ "'$/, "/ 8&/",*,#$"% $ 1 $" " #/-! $" /-, $ (1 ( / (/". #-/", "'$/ " 8&/",*,#$"% (!$/ $' "'$/ ( / / " Ec $% /,# / /!(#-/ #,' 9.#$ ). 3,,#-/ "'$/!/ /-, #-! "!+" ( "/!+" "%.#1% % */ ''*/ "'/*/,*,#$"%. Figure 1.1 Optical absorption of a photon with hn > Eg: (a) an EHP is created during photon absorption; (b) the excited electron gives up energy to the lattice by scattering events; (c) the electron recombines with a hole in the valence band

66 "'$/ " 1 ( "#(, $ (1 " $" "% / (-9 " */ #-*/; #-/( $ / $% % # 9''/ (%, - ' / / (/ +/. /& " (-9 " #-*/ (! % /!% 8&/%, * $ / '+. / (/ -(/ "/,*,#$" ( ('+. 3/ *$/ # #$" /-, $ Eg / +/ /, -/ "'$/ $ " 8&/".-/(% " 8&/",*,#$"%. 3 -/.$ "#,*,$ (! #'"- $" " */ */*/ # hv < Eg. ($ )",, # (' / / #-/%!-% #1(% +#%. +# '-/ / /(# #-/(% #/*-%, $*% '$% NaCl + ''%, '$,* ( #,'( /,+! #% */ "'/*/ ( / (! ('$. /! # / ( 2eV '%, #$/ #,' #1" +#% $/ ## $ /-% # 998/; $ "/ ''",! # 3eV - (-(.% $' $ # / 99. / # - #" */*/ # hv > Eg (, -/ "#,*,$,. (! #,' $ $" "%,.8 $ % $"% ( ('+. /#-/(# "% */ #$#/*/ / 998 "/ -/ " ( *$% / ) $ #1% +#% */(!% (,#%. / (', (# (1 "/ )" ", % (.- (# $ " -/ " #% - #"% */*/ ( *$/ / cm2 s ) (.+/ -/,# $!% l (!. 1.2 ). - #" -! *$/ # #1% +#%, ',#-/ $ #/!*# 1. <*% " - #" -! $,#, " -/ " "% $ " 4 $ "/ / # / (', # "/ )- " "%./$"% $" "% /$% 1 +)" " dx. #-/( $ -/ *$/, 9*, $ " 4!*% / ". / -! #/1#" ( $ '+ -! )-:, "./$" $" "% (. dx /.1. (/-, " (9.# " "% -/ "% dl(x) / dx / /'," "% -/ "% ( #-/ x: dl(x) / dx = al(x) (1.1) '+ " "% ) * "% /: (!) = e-ax (1.2) " -/ " ( *$% ( # $!% l (,#% /: t = Ioe-al (1.3)

67 Figure 1.2 Optical absorption experiment. (/' 1% ' (/' 1% $" "% -! #/% cm-1. (/' 1% ($% (. - # #1% +#% ( */( $ ('$. # '1 ( # #1% +#% (!. 4-3 ). (! #'"- $" " #,' #1" +#% ( hv small ) "#/1 $" " */ */*/ # /-,% #,'+% ( Eg. +#*/ # "/ ) * " (2-2), "!- " #)+ "% /-,% */ */*/ ( #1(% +#% / =hc/'. / " / "'$/9$'% ' #$, $,/ = 1,24/'. Figure 1.3 Dependence of optical absorption coefficient a for a semiconductor on the wavelength of incident light

68 !1# 1.4!/ /,$! # #&/ $ (% /+% "#,*,+%!- "# $, % (-(.%, (&% #1# ( *$%. 0"+# $ GaAs, Si, Ge lnsb 9 / -)* $ "/ 1!1, "/ (-(.". 2'' "#,*,, $*% GaP CdS, -!(/! # (+ - & / *$/ "/ 1!1. / "#/$ / "#& (# $ -/%"#,*,$% *$/ # /-,% % #! # 1 #,'+%. 2 Si $! #$/! # ( -1 #.m ) '' #$ #1" +#%, (#'#9/#-/( (&/ ( / "/ 1!1 ( #%. Figure 1.4 Band gaps of some common semiconductors relative to the optical spectrum

69 2.9.2!8% </ "#(, 1 $ 8+," "'/*/ -/ "#,*,$ 1 $/ #%,/ (:"'$ #)*/ $ #(/ % % %, *% # /. $ ('$. 0'' $ (% "#,*,+% / ''"', "/ #1 *$%, */ "#,*,&/ # # " 8&/" /&/.,/1 $" #1% *$% /#8 *,-/. (1 " ", # / (. /', # #"!/ #$ -, "%. / #% /,#-/ $ "/ $" " */*/, " /9' ( + $ / / (/-# */,#-/*/ #-*/ ' *,-/; /,#-/ #% ( "#(,+/ $ 9#9 #$ "'/*/ (:"'1% /-,% $ ('$, $ ($% #"!/ #$% ' cathodluminesence; / " -, " + $ "/,*,1 */!$/*/,# " '1 *+, ' "'*+,. 2'' " -, "% /./, '' ( / $ % "#/-% #,-% ( (&/. '$,# #1% ( *$% $ -// "#,*,$ ( 8, "/ (.% -, " /! #+ /$%, $*% /8!1# 3-5. / / (/ #$% (#9/ # $! #- * /$% '*#+ -(,! # *$% / / "..1 " -, "%, / (/ #$% (#9/ # (% (% (.#+% # "/,*,1 -/ *$/ -#,. *$/ (. # % / (/ #$% / #,1," ; #- " 8*1% ( / (/1.*% $ 10-8s 1 ',$. 2 " #1 */*/ # ( 10-8s # -'% "% -, "%. -,1," *9$'% /- (!/ *%. #$%. $, (' " #1 (/!8, $(% $ seconds #-! ' + #(/. " -, ". (-%,-% % '+/ * #$% (' * +!. 3/,#,1% % /!1# 4-5. ('$ ($ -! ( *% '$,* $ #)"% ) " 8&/" /+ ( -! # -//" ", "/ */1 +''":" "'/*/ $ " 8&/",*,#$"%.,,/$ ( /8/!1# -!(/ *% )1%: () 3/!$#/ *$/ # hv1 > Eg "#(,&/% -/ EHP. (9),$#/ "'$/ $ "/ /-, '-,# $ - " #-! / '" -'% "% 8&/"%,*,#$"%. (c) "'$/ /,(#-/ $ */ )-/*/ ('&/ Et #-/,(#-/ #-! / )/,..# " 8&/",*,#$"%. (d);(e) -'%, # % / (/ #$% + $/ "'$/ - # " " 8&/".-/(%, 1//% -/ *$/ (hv2) $ /,$! #.!$/%.( -" "% #)+ -, "% /! #+ # / /! #,' / "./$".#1% /-, "% $ "/, (d) / #1. $# #,'+%.( 1 % (!(/ $/ "'$/,+ -% -% / / / (/-#. / "./$",( "% / #,'+" $ "/./$" /! #+, -/ "'$/ # / / #-% #-% #)+ "%,% "/ 8&/",*,#$"% / +: / (/ #$%. -/ - ('$ " #1 ( * 8/ *$%, #,'!!/$ "# # "/ #(/ " "% -, "%

70 Figure 1.5 Excitation and recombination mechanisms in photoluminescence with a trapping level for electrons.!&# ( *$% ( -# $ -/ & ) (*% $ % + % #)%, #-/( $ ''-% #9 % /9'% (/,(/ $ #)"% /$% "% 8&/"%! #%. (1 " ',1!*#*/ /!1 #", "/ (1 /$%!&#% "'1%.$/"%. 3/ $ (/1.",# photoluminescence / '#1%. #+. (/1.*% # - '(!/ ' $ -/,('/ *'1/,# -, # -/.8/! # *$ ( *'1/. </ "'1 -/* " '1." #)+ */ "'*/ *'1/,,#-/ # ( ( -#(/ *$/, #,' 9.#$ "/ 1 "/ (&"!1 (! #%. *% -! ". $ "/ *9$' * " -#/ *$/. (1 " ' #$" /$% -( '#1 /." '+" $ /" /$% '#1 (& *% " /#)" /$% #1(% +#% *% # / (.#8 $ "/ '+" ',1 ( ('+. #+. 0,# 1.1 3/!+,# 0,46 #m ( GaAs *8 # #/!*#$ *% hv=2ev. (/' 1% $" "% / 5x104 cm-1.!+% (,#% / 10 mw. (a) " (/'1 /-, $" "% $,# / second (j/s). (b) $ "% '/8( %.#1% /-,% ( '(.&." $ "'$/ '-,# / / / (/-# (j/s). (c) /.#$ */ */*/ / second ( '(.&."/ $ $,,/$ /! #+ (.-/% -' 9/1 $ "

71 + " $ "/ ) * " (1.3): It=I0e-al = 10-2 expl - 5 x 104 x 0,46 x 10-4 = 10-2 e-2,3 = 10-3 W $ " (/'1 /-, $" "% /: 10-1 = 9 mw = 9 x 10-3 J/s ' # */ */*/ / #/ /-,% ( #-.#$" /: (2-1,43)/2 = 0,285 $ $ /-,% ( #".#$" / ($' /: 0,285 x 9 x 10-3 = 2,57 x 10-3 J/s.-/% -/ #$#/ *$/,. *$/ ( (-' 9/1 $ "), -!(#: (9 x 10-3 J/s) / (1,6 x V x 2eV/photon) = 2,81 x 1016 photons/s /''1 '+ ": / (/ #$% /9'%, 9-2,57 = 6,43 mw 1,43 ev/photon (6,43 x 10-3) / (1,6 x x 1,43) = 2,81 x 1016 photons/s %"!(4.!8%!(/ '' $ # (% (% " "'1 /-, # /!" #"., "/ "#(, #1% */*/ $. LED -/ "'$ +# ' -,!( " */ #/&/ #-*/!-% ( ( ''( $( #+/ / / (/ +/ # ':" #-*/, # '- # "/ #1 /! #+ /9'%. "#/$ ($ -' #. /'(. ' 8 (% $(% "%.*% "% p-n +* "%. & -' # "'*+,% ( "1." 1/ " #1 */*/ $ (,#-/ * +! /'' $#/ "'/$. " ( (1 (1, # * +! $/" $*% ZnS 9 (/$ ('$ ( (/1.*% ' $ ) #% "'1%.%. </ #$8 -/ --- "'$, *% / $% ( * +!(. - + # / /!1 # *% * #$% -----, / " ' #$" (% 1/ '+!#"'1, % $% #,-% " ) (% /

72 2.9.3 %!.4(%0) "!4/$2!/! </ "'$/ -% ( "#(,+/ "#,*,+%, (! /!" +)" " "/,*,#$"% (,#% $*% /- "/ ) * " (3-43). / " (-9 " */ #-*/ +: $ "/ 1 *+, /#8 *,*,"#$". ($ / -/ "#/$ -' #, #!1 #% #,-%, "/ /'( " */ ('&/ */ "#,*,&/ '(, */ ''&/ &/ ( (-%. #1# ($ )8(# (% #"!/ #+% # (% (% "'$/ -% / (/8/ #$8(/ / (/ #$, "/ /'( " *,&,#*/ ( (&/. $, " "# ( /! #+ / 8 % & % % % " (-9 " */ #-*/ "#(,+/. "/,#$",!$/. ( (1 "#,*,&/ ) / $ $ "/ (-9 " ( /! #+ "'/*/ &/. % +(, -//% ( /+ / $/ #1#.!" #".+/ (-*%, "/ /'( " */ $*/, /8, '-8, ''*/ ( (&/ $#/ '

73 $%4) &*&7$2) /1%"!(4&0& " 4 -& '$/,*,#$"% " 8&/" */ "#,*,&/ #+/ / /(/ " #9 " " 8&/".-/(% # -##. # / (/ #$ (9'+ '".( #+ */ "'/*/ &/ (/.-/ $ "'$/ ( '(.+/ & " $ " 8&/",*,#$"%, / " "% 8&/"%.-/(%. /-, (!/ -/ "'$/ " #9 " / $ -/ *$/. # % / (/ #$% (#9/ (.$#"../$" $ -/ "'$/ # 1 / (/8/ /.1!$/. <*% "/ * " "% - "% ( #-, (1 ".1./$" #% ", / /#-/(# #.1 '+ ", " " "% (-9 "% */ #-*/. "/ * " (1 $ "% +/. "% */ "'/*/ 1!/1,#1 t / /'," # /.#$ */ &/ #.1 /',%, / (/ #+% Ar*..$ $ #9'1% " 8&/",*,#$"% "'/*/ / (/' 1%.#1%,/% #*/ $ / (/( #+. dn(t)/dt = arni2 - arn(t)p(t) (1.4) % (.- (# $ "#(, '$/ # "'/*/, t=0,,,# $ -/ +/# '% *$% "!1 (-9 " &/ "'/*/ n p / %. " (/-!, $*% "'$/ -% / (/8/ 8+,",#% (,/& % */ #-*/ n(t) p(t) / "% %. 3, #+# /,:(# +/' */ (,/& */ "% ) * "% (1.4) $ "/ #&/ n0 p0 % (,/& % #-*/ n(t)=p(t). 4" #&/% "/ ) * " (3-24)-!(#: dn(t) / dt = arni2 - ar[n0 + n(t)][p0+p(t)] = -ar[(n0+p0)n(t) + n2(t)] (1.5) ) * " (1 / + ' / '(. (1 " #1 ((!&% ( / (/$ / '".+/, "/ * " (!#"'+ -( -,!( "%. / (,/& % "% (-9 "% */ #-*/ / #1 #+# / #'1 (# / $ n2. '-/, / ('$ / )*,/-% #+# (/1.*% / #'1 (# / $ ( / *+ "/ #/$"% #-*/.,# / ('$ / p-+( (p0 > n0), " ) * " (1.5),/: dn(t) / dt = -arp0n(t) (1.6) '+ " (1 "/ ) * " / #.1 +/. " $ "/!1 (,-/* " -/ ( #- (n): n(t) = ne-arp0t = ne-t/tn (1.7)

74 Figure 1.6 Excitation and band-to-band recombination leading to photoluminescence. 9+/ "'$/ -/ p-+( "#,*,$ / (/8 # (/!1. Tn = (ar t0)-1 ' / (/ #$% 8*1%. #-/( $ (', #$%,/ $ "/ :" "% #:"% */ #-*/ Tn ' (!/ " 8*1% "% #/$"% #-. (9'1. &/ -/ n- +( ('$ #/8 # Tp=(art0)-1. "/ * " */ # */ / (/ #&/ " ':" #-*/ (/. 9&% # / (.#$ # " #/$"% #-*/.! -/ #,' $ #9'1% "% #/$"% "% (,-/* "% #-*/ "'/*/,# 1.2 -/ #$ $ #9'1% "% ':"% (,-/* "% */ &/. " -,, " */ )*,/&/ ('&/!#"'$ #% - / / *+ (# n(t) "/ ) * " (1.4) $ "/ (9'1 (,-/* " n(t) p(t) $ "/ #1 % p(0).!1# 1.7!/ $ (1 / # '1 -,, ",,#.,/1 +* ", #- "% 8*1% /: Tn = 1 / ( ar(n0 + p0) ) - " (1 / -,(", n-n p-+( ('+ / /!#"'$

75 Figure 1.7 Decay of excess electrons and holes by recombination, for Dn = Dp = 0.1p0, with n0 negligible, and t = 10 ns (Example 1.2). The exponential decay of dn(t) is linear on this semilogarithmic graph #"$,# # / /!1 # "/ 1 -,, " ",/, "/ /'( " */ # */ / (/ #&/. % (.- (# -/,# ( GaAs / /!(#-/ # 10^15 acceptors/cm^3.,,/1% (,-/* " #- ( GaAs / ( 10^6 centimeter^-3. 3 " #:" (,-/* "% "'/*/ / n0=ni^2/p0=10^-3cm^-3. '&% " -,, " ( p0>>n0!+ "/ * " (1. & / 10^14 EHP/cm^3 "#(,".+/, t=0. # / (', " " */ / '$,* #-*/!&. -,, " n << p0 / ',1 $*%!/!1# 4-7. $ ($!/ ".!$/ "% % ( '".( #+, -/ #- / (/ #+ 8*1% $( Tn = Tp = 10^-8s

76 :$$%4) &+%7$2) 07%*/ " 1'" IV "#,*, #-/% /& %, "./$" # ( / (/#+ "'/*/-&/ / '+ #1.! 8&/"! #% *% /. $% */ ('&/ $*% Si Ge " ( / (/ #+, '' (1 " /9' / '+!#"'1 # / /!/(. #$/ $ (."(% )' #+%. (/1 ':" */,,/$*/ / (/ #+ /$% "% 8&/"% ( /+ "% (/$'(."% &'% /-,% $ / (/ #$ "'/*/ (/1.*% #-! '-,# *%.#$" $! # "/ #1 */ */*/.. $ #)"% '*# # /!" #+ *% -/ / (/ #+ / /.- " / '#9/ #-% /$% +( " (/-! / (''9 /. % ( -, - 8+,% )'.+.,#,!1# 4-8 /8 -// / (/( #$ -( En % / * $ Ef *% +(, / "#/,#" # "'$/. </ (9/(/ "'$/ -% ( "#(,+/ ($ ('$,. EHP / (/8 Er, + : (a) +''":" 1% (b) +''":" "'/(. Figure 1.8 Capture processes at a recombination level: (a) hole capture at a filled recombination center; (b) electron capture at an empty center

77 #-/( $ -/ / (/ #+!1# 1.8 -!(/,# "/, & (#9/ " / (/ #+ / " +''":" 1%. / "#/$ / "#*. $ (#9/ ($ / +/# # -/ "'$/ E, ( (, " 8&/".-/(%, 1//% * (% # " /+ / (/ #+. 3 " +''":" 1% " /-, / #-/" *%.#$" '-,#. "%, " /-,,'." $/ (,$"# "'/*/,*,#$"% (/-! - # " "/ Er. </ ( (,,/$ -!(/ (#9, -/ / (/ #+ / * "/!1 ( " ( (#'"&/ # -/ "'$/), '' ' -/ EHP. 3 $/ -/% EHP / (/ #$% -'9!& '' -/ / -# / (##! ''" * " / (/ #+ //% +''":" #% 1%. #-% 8*1% ( + $ / -## / (/ #$ / *% '+' $ $ / " * " ( # ( / (/ #+, #-/( $ / /, / '". ($:" / %!$/% (, " '1:". +( #-. *%, / (/ #$% (!/.( $ "/ " /$% #- / /.#,#-/% "/!1 8&/" / " +''":" ( -// (% #- ( # / +:,#, / (''". -/ "'$/ (b) / '(. #- *% # " +''":" "% 1% (a),!1# 1.8, " 1 / # /,..# " 8&/".-/(%. (1 "!8 /-,, ( /! 8&/".-/(% "'/*/ ( 9''/ # "/ " / (/ #+. (1 ".( / / (/ #$,.&% " 1 - / (''". ' / ''"*. / (/ #$%.,*,#$" (,#% " "% +/. "% /: (t) = q[n(t)#n + p(t)#r] (1.9) % +(, " )" " $!$/ ( #- # / '(.". $ "/,1 / "% (,#% (/" " #!$/. ",1 #&/ '#&/ *$%, #8 # -/ '#,, "/ $/ " (,#% "%.&% " / " ''. 0'# *$% #('-*/ #+/ / '".+/ # -% :% -// (/*1 #- * /$% *'1/ #- * /$% '% ( -! -/ - $*% xenon. #$(% '#+%, -%!/-% $*% "!1 " */ '#&/ laser - /!" #+/

78 QUASHI-FERMI "/ ",+#/" (81" ", / # "/ 1 (9'1. ( '".( #+ EHP. $, #"!/ # / (/ #+ / "% "#/ -/,#.#1% %.,#, -/% "#,*,$% -!.#1,/ EHPs $ g(t)=gi (, "/ ) * " 1.7. (1 ",/ / "#-/" $ $ / (/ #+ - & " */ (,/& */ */ #-*/ n*^0 p*^0 / "+/: g(t) = arni2 = arn0p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i. ($,##.-"% "'&/ / " $ #)" /.11 /"1 $/ /8/. #-/% #)%,(/ ''' " 8&/"! #%.,# Zn, -/ (Zn-) 0,31eV ( / #- (! #% Zn $ #)". $#( /.- "/!. + "'$/ $ / "#,*,$, -/!#"'$ " (/-!# /&

79 Figure Energy levels of impurities in Si. The energies are measured from the nearest band edge (Ev or Ec); donor levels are designated by a plus sign and acceptors by a minus sign. & % ( / (/ #+ "%,( "% # / #". $ -/ # *,&,#"% +/. "%. <*%!/!1# 1.7, -/ $ '".( #+,#-/*/ "'/*/ &/ )/8 # -/.$!" $ +/. "% "% % ( / (/ #+. / -/.$ *%,#, -/ $ 1%,/% gop..,.#1,*,1, (,/& % */ #-*/ n p. ()".+/ /-%.-% #-%. #+ # /,:(# "/ */ n dp: g(t) + gop = arnp = ar(n0 + n)(p0 + p) (1.11).1 " / (/ #+ $!,( ", n=p. 3 " ) * " 1.11,/: g(t) + gop = arn0p0 + ar[(n0 + p0)n + dn2] (1.12) $% arn0p0 / 9&% % # / (/' 1.#1%,/% g(t). 3,,/*8/% $ n2,!#"'$ -, "%, #+# / )/,:(# "/ ) * " 1.12 *%: gop = ar(n0 +p0)n = n / Tn (1.13) (,-/* ",#-/( #- # /, *%:

80 n = p = goptn Figure Experimental arrangement for photoconductive decay measurements, and a typical oscilloscope trace. ('-( '#$% *$% # / '". # -% :% /$% (/*1 #- * /$% *'1/ ( -! - $*% xenon. (/#$(% '#+%, -%!/-% $*% "!1 " */ '#&/ laser - /!" #+/ ,# 1.3, ".1 " (,-/* "% "'/*/ /: n = n0 + n = 1,2 x 1014 = (1,5 x 1010)e(Fn - Ei)/0,0259 <( KT 0,00259eV.# *#(. 3 "'$/ Quasi Fermi 9 ".- " Fn-Ei $: Fn - Ei = 0,0259ln(8x103) = 0,233eV Fn / 0,233eV /* $,,/-%. $ -/ $# (', #$, " 1 Quasi Fermi 9 0,186eV * "% Ei (!1# 1.11). ($,#, " ( -( Fermi / 0,0259ln(6,67x10^3) 0,228eV /* $,,/-%. quosi-fermi (!1#% 1.11 /8(/ # "/ $' " $ "/ ( ' $ "/ 1 -, "..1 " Fn 8 * "% EF. $!1# / /-% $ " -, " ' -/ #,' $ #9'1% #:"% (,/& */ #-*/ &/! #1 #9'1 "% (,-/* "% "'/*/

81 Figure 1.11 Quasi-Fermi levels Fn and Fp for a Si sample with n0 = 1014 cm23, tp = 2 ms, and gop = 1019 EHP/cm3-s (Example 4 4). (/, quosi-fermi Fn Fp / ".1 " /', "/ ( -( Fermi Ef. </ / $/%,#-/ #%, ' % */ Fn Fp $ Ef /- $ # "'$/ -% 9 / $ % #-% % no po. #-/" (,-/* ",#-/( EHP ' #,#-/" 1 "/ #/$" #-*/ */ quosi-fermi Fn-Fe /!$/ # #- "% $' "% $ "/ ( Fn=Fp=Ef). -// */ quosi-fermi -*/ / '+!1 #", "/ $/ " "% #/$"% "% '/$"% (,/& */ #-*/ ( (-%, % % $"% (-% ''(/ /', #.- "

82 3- % / '+ % +% ( (1% "µ,*,+. /, / µ "'/1 ( (1 + &/ -(/ +µ / - - µ +.(/ ". +µ / ) +µ*/ µ "/ " µ)+ */ &/. / (+(/ /$µ ( *µ.!(/ "#,*,&/ ('&/: * $( "µ,&,µ% $"% ( ('+ (#9/(/ (, "'1 / -% " + " ( ('+ )* $( "µ,&,µ% $"% ( ('+ (8 $ µ% & ('$ / (µ- µ / $ µ / µ%.(µ+µ.!$/ $' "µ,*, +,!/ "'/ ( 1µ / )*. ($ "µ/ $ -!(/ "µ(,". µ9''/% % "'-% $"% ( ('+. /-% µ-. / 1 (µ % "'-% $"% / *: 0.1" µ)*/ "'1 ".1" «)-/*/» $µ*/ ('$. % 1% "'1,,/$% ( (µ9/ $/ /& (µ (' µ8. / /1 (µ *% '(, µ % 1% p n, )/µ (.-/% + )!* µµ /$% "µ,*,+, -/ µµ p -/ µµ n

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290 "#/1 1" "!- 14 / $ /( #$%!* #$%,'*#*/ z #)+ */ #*/ + ',##*/ / /.$% % %.- % #, - & 9-' % /( #$%!* #$%,'*#*/ /$% ''' ( ( (z)min / / %, $' /+ #,'*#*/ #. (/-, #"/ #$% "% '$"% Bragg "% (/" "% sinc / # / (//". '$'" # "#*/, # (/- "/ &$ #. (1 " -'( " "% &$ # (/8 # -// $ $! / + /( # (#*/ "#*/ ( -/ + /( # (#*/ /% ( i (/ "/.",*#. + /( # (#*/, -/%,*/$%!* #$%, '-,, / /! "/ '! " /( #1 9'1,'*#*/!* #+ z / )/ z " ## : ()! " () # ". (/-, " #-, ",*/ /,/* "%. ',##% 9 % #"/-%,*/%. -/ $ '' '(',#-/ ',##. -/ '' /( # (#*/ "#*/ q, /+%, " #-, ",*/ /,/* "% / /."#-/" % #"/-%,*/%. -/ $ '' '(',#-/ ',##, # (/- "/ &$ #!. &$ #! '! $/ /% "#*/ /% (/ %.% /% ( #- (,, " /', #)+ "% /.+#""% #9'1% ( 1#%, "/ #-/" /.+#"" #9'1 SNR, / $: (26) $( N /.#$% ',##*/ NA /.#"$ /,# "% /% "#*/. </ )!* pixel."+/ # +.# " #!"# #+ (- "!1 &$ # '#9/ " #1:

291 (27) $( Py /.#$% "'&/ */ pixel. 2) 418 1%3/ $"4*) "8$!4): '(') #1(% +#% ' $!"# #$ ',##*/ /. +# /% ' $ -/ +# /$% +,,/$% #1(% +#% "/,*/, - & : (28) $( & ( i " /!",*/1 (!/$" w i ' '' /' #$% "% ( i / %, $'% % /% /%. $/ +# /%,1% / Bragg 1matched, 1 '' ",+/ "/ bragg-#"- (/( #-/" /"#(,.!. 16 ( 8 -/,##, "/ '(') #1(% +#%..16 ## *! $ <*% # " * ",*/1% '(')%,!" # # #$* " #!"# #+ (-. /% 1#% /% / (/% % /.% '(-% ( ',+ #- (,,/* -% *% #$* " //' "%. '$" #1(% +#% #,, (#'#9/$#/ /+ # (#*/ 1#% /% ( /!+/ (.+/ % ',$ #- #/"#$/( "%

292 . 17. /#!'! $ #!! *$!, % # % LiNbO % % 1., "! "&# 2.5, ) $ 500 NM.!. 17 ( 8 ",*# "/ " / /% / (/1% // "/ / /$% #- ( " / 1#% / (/1% (,*/, $ / "/ / /%. % (#'*#-/% (copolarized) /% 1#% /%, " $".' "% 8 &%: <( v / (!/$"% #)+ "%,1% /,/* "% /% /%, c / "!+" ( *$% '+.!&,, / ",*/ #)+ /$% ( 1#% /$% +#% /% #-. ',## //' "%, " '! " (!/$"!* #+ 8 *% " &" )':" "% (/" "% sinc, " #/8 &%: (29) (30) ',## //' "%, ",*/ #)+ ( 1#% "% /% /% /,/ "#/1. '$" (!/$"% / (:"'$", " /$#/" (counterpropagating),*#, "/ " / "#*/ /% / (/1% % /.% /% /$%

293 ',+ #- (.1( "% % /.% (.+/ %. )" " "% (!/$"%!* #+ *% (/" " "%,*/% #)+ */ /*/ 1#% /% ( 8! 17. /. $#/% /% 1#% /%, " '! " (!/$"!* #+ /: (31) -/ ',$ ('$.1( "% $*% niobate '.( ( -!!% 1. " "%.' "% 2.5, " '$" (!/$"% / 6 Ghz, 500 NM #1" +#%,1%//,/* "%. (/-, /* $ ',## #+/ /,, +/ # # #1(% +#% "% /% /% $ 500 -*% 560 NM. '(') #1(% +#% /+,/ " ',#! #)+ */ '(',#-/*/ ',##*/, '$,* */ ' */ $ (% /$/% '$"% #1(% +#% ( 8/ /*-*. /( #&/ #*/,'*#*/, '(',#-/ #1% +#% ',## (/+ $ / #-/ $),##&/! 18. <*% # ",*/1 '('), /( #$%!* #$%,'*#*/ z #)+ */ #*/ + ',##*/ / /.$% % %.- % #, - & 9-' % /( #$%!* #$%,'*#*/ /$% ''' ( ( (z)min / / %, $' /+ #,'*#*/ #. (/-, #"/$% "% '$"% Bragg "% (/" "% sinc / #/ (!. $ '$'" # "#*/,# (/- " ',#! ## *! $ ',#! '! $/ /% 1#% /% / /$#/%,, % % " /', #)+ "% ',#!% ( 1#% ( #-/ SNR), / $:

294 (32) NA /.#"$ /,# "% /% "#*/. "#& $, (1/ "/ #$* ", #-/ ',#! SNR / ) $ /.#$ ''' #-/*/ ',##*/, ) % "% +.# "% #9 "#. ( 1#, " ',#! / / $%,/%. ''/, "/ '(') #1(% +#% 8 $ /.$ (// #$ ",&/ '-8 "/!(1. ', #-. /$#/" -,, ", / /#* 81"# "%. % / /!" #". #.",*#, ( -! "/ '$" #1(% +#% (, #" # " counterpropagating,*#, $*% /!. 17, % #-% /$"%, "',#! / / -/%,/%. 3) 7"4 4/$'&/).#/) 418 1%3/ ( "%-*"#-/" '(')!" # -/ SLM "%, / '-,) "/ / /% / 91 -',! "% #$* "% "% "% 1% ('',1% */!*/ "%, / '! 1 " ',#!.!/1,#%, *"#-/" "% '(') ( 8!- 19. &, -/% #!"# #$% Fourier!" #, % % */ /*/ "#*/ /%. - *"#-/" / /% '#9/ -/!- "% (.&/ $ -/ SLM. ($,#, -/ #/ (1-D) SLM /."#-/ # /$ $ #1# ( +, - & +( % /% /% ( (/ ('$ -!(/ -/ /( #$ # (#*/ # ". "!" #" " /$% (/$'(.//&/ (/1 */-'(,&/ #% ''"'"% 1% #$* "%, '(',#-/ ',## #+/ /.".+/!*% #,'" /.+#"" ',#!

295 . 19. HDSS ) -" % ## *!. ''' ',##,/ # # ' *&/ "% "% /% /%.. '$,##, -' # / /( #$ #,'*#*/ ( (/+ $ " #-/"!1!- 20. /. " # "/,*/1 '+')", /( # #,'*#*/. ',1 '(:" ($ ( /. '$,## /!- % "% #)+ */,##-/*/ ',##*/. Krile ##.&% Morozov -!(/,: /)" (1/ "/, ' ',##,, / (! # '$" Bragg. $,* "% '$"% "%, )8(# (1/ "/, / )",1 (# % 9 -% $"% "% *" "% "%. </ '- # $,( '#9// ($:", " '$" Bragg #&/ " /.+#"" ',#! ) -"! ## *!. ",/1 * ", -/ (2-D)!- "% # /!" #".. # " ( #- ( # #,##1 $ " / $ : (33) $(!/(/ % #-% Fourier ( 1#% "% *"#-/"% /% /!, / $ ( SLM, /. /',$"% )&#/" # 9 " '$,##. /* * #$ # "/ / /% r c,.'$#/(.'$#/o?) $ '$,## *% / $: : (34)

296 + / " / /% /,/* "%. / -/ 8(, /% "#*/ r i s i!" #, "/,1 ( i ',##%, $/ "/ /,/* "# r c -!(#: (35) &. # / /"#(,"#-/ +# /-/%. / -/ '$,##."+, ".' #-/" / ( / #- * ( #!"# #+ Fourier,/,, / / $ /!/(&/, $( ' -% * +!/(/ (! #$ " (/-')", /! / #. /',$"%.!#"1!#1 ( (!- "% #-/( / /"#(,". 1# s1. '' 8(, /#-/( (1 " - ",/+ (36) /,&/% (! #$% #)+ (% + &% /% r i r j / )$',%, $/ -!(# " "#/1 /.+#"" ',#! #)+ + $/*/ (."+/ # (+% (% &%. 3!!. $ ($% $!% # / ''"*. ' #!" #&/% (% &% Gold Carter ( /+ /, % #,-% /*/% #% "% $!#"'$ $, #-/" /.+#"" #9'1 SNR, ',## ( ''' 8/ '#- / $: (37) (38)

297 SNR # / 9'*.!" #&/% %!/-% (,/, (#'#9/#-/( ( * #+ /$%!( "% # # 1 / /%. "/ * " ( (/8!- 19, +# /%. '+/ / $ % ",-% "#( ( /!+/ -/ pixel ( SLM "%. ",*# #!"# #+ (- ( (/8 &,. ",1 "#( /! ( +# # $ $ #!"# #+ (-, - & : (39) </ # / /% #&/ " " # ", $*% /!- 19, ' $ /+ # (#*/ ( // -/ -/. '-,(# -/ "# */ #"#*/ */ (#*/ - & # */ /( #*/ (#*/ (( j ) /! /+ # (#*/ ( 9' +/,,*/1 '+')". "/ ''"'" ',1 "%,*#%, $% (/( #$% Bragg # / #'".. (1/ "/ * ", Krasnov -! ) $ )/"#-/.' #-/ 1# / $ (40) ". /',$"% ) $ % $"% ( ',+ ('+. (1/ "/ 1 * ",.8 *$ =$/ #)+ R i R j. / '! 1 (# "/ /.+#"" ',#!, +# $ +# /% /.,&/. # 1 #,1 "% *" "% "%,. -!(#!" # #$* " "/ $% (/( #$% Bragg / # / #'". /'&%, # $ '#1% /'( ", '' #+# /!" #1 (# % % ( '#9//, d c, /.+/ $ "% /#/$#/" (#% ( ( 1#%. (/', /#-/(# #-/ SNR &$ # /$%.,&/( -*"#-/(

298 '('+ ( 1#% / / (, # # "/ * " "%,*/1% '(')% *% (:"'$ $/ '/(# $ 91.,/$". # ( " (2-D) / /%, " ( "% '$"% Bragg #&/ " ',#! '$,* ( + (/( #+ Bragg, '' " /.+#"" ',#! '$,* ( (' #+ Bragg / # / 9'".. /,.(#+# -/ +/' *&/ /% r i - & " (/" " ( (!- "% / /,, #" # (/" " -' ( /. #"-/, $. 8(, */ **/ -!-//,&/ (! #$ ( /. #$% / #"-/. $/ /"#(,"#-/ 1#. -! "/ '! " /.+#"" ',#!. </ -/ SLM 1 -/% 1% "% (, "/ / /% ",*# #!"# #+ (- / + %, " "#/1 /.+#"" #9'1 #/8 '$,* */ (' */ Bragg. /, " " # / (. $ 1/ (!,. pixel, 1 " /( #1 +.(/ " (#*/ ",*# Fourier, $( # (! " '' #$# $ 0 -*% 2, (% 2-D (!(% &% "%, " &$ #! (',8*%: (41) + Mz /.#$% '+ #*/ /( #*/ (#*/ /*/ /% " " z (42) ". /!( #1#% */ (#*/ /*/ /%.8!*. "/!/1!- 19 -!/% -/ 2-D SLM /*/ /%,. pixel /! -/ ( /( # (#*/ /*/ /%. ( ( /+ # (#*/ /*/ /% #+/ / /.+/ *% 9.# '(.%.!" #1 # SNR #, #-/*%, / '". # "/!1 $*/ 9.#&/ '(.% "/ / /% $ /.#$ ',##*/. 0,#%!/, / -/!-,#%.8 # " & " /$% ( "% # /$ $ #-% /$% +, SNR 9'&/,/.&%.#$% ()/, #-!-/ $ #

299 3/ "#/$!" $,/& # "% "%-*" "% '+')"% ( / - ''% '('-%,, % / " (," " */,##-/*/!*/ (!" #+/ "/ *" " "%. /, " /$" "% *" "% "% '+')"% / (, #" # (1/ "%,*/1%/ '(')%. )% -% #,-%, /+%, -!(/ $ "/ ''"'$" */.- #*/ SLMs "%-*" "%. : "/ ',1,*# */, " '('$" #$ "% / " ''"'$" ( 1 '+ ", #-/( $ / 1 1," " /*/ 1 '',1 #1(% +#% (,!/ ' /&/% #-!- " % /% /% /#-/(, $*% (/+!- 2. '(')% #$ "% # / # # "!" #" " /$% + +#% 1, /'', /$% (!( 1 :((!(!(,#% *% / /%. '('$" #$ "% " 1 * " /*/ /% "8,,/$% $ # 1 / +*/ -! ''',*/ (, #-/*%, # #$ " */ #- */ 1 */ /*/ /% ", (#9$ $ (/( #$ Bragg. '(')% # # /,#% / 9 #-/" "/!*1 '(, ( (!- "% "% /% (!" #, "/,1. - * ", " $".' "% ( ',##%.8 $ 9.#$ (! #+ #)+ "% /%,#% (!" #, "/,1 "% "% (speckled) /% ( ( 8 "/ /,/* " (.!., # # #-/"!& - " "%!1% /%). # (! "' (Gaussian speckle), " '$" #$ "% ',##*/.8 $ "/ (/" " ( (!- "% /*/ (43) + 7 / $ #$ "% k = 2 /1, NA /.#"$ /,# "% /% /%, j 1 / " &( 9.#+ (/" " Bessel ( &( (%. '$",#% / ) $ "/ +.(/ " "% #$ "% #- */ (Bragg '$ 1 Bragg (' #-/) / /)"" $!% #- */, / " (,-/* " /.+#""% #9'1% / (/1.*% '+,",$" "/ (' #-/" Bragg +.(/ " (Bragg-degenerate) +.(/ " ( '#- ). ' (' (Thin-film-based) / /!" ''"',,*/1 '+')" '$,* "% ( '% "/ ()" "%."%,*#%. 0, " '+')",#% # / #*.!" #&/% #' #$ ( /+, "/ '+')" *" "% "% (, /*.!-,#%.,, -/ # */ (#*/ ( /. -!,/ % 9-' % $"% '$"% Bragg. ''/, " +* " (!- "% / -/ '+ $(, /,: "

300 ,,/ # #1 -,, ", / /+) # '1" 1 /'( ". /, " '$" "% '('1% #$ "% / " # #1% ( (!- "% ( #-,#%, % / 1.21 / "/ + "/ y +.(/ ". '#-% "% /.+#""% #9'1%. )".+/ $ % '#-% (!(,#% "/!/1 HDSS..&% " /.+#"" #9'1 #&/.#$% 9.#&/ '(.% ( (/-/ #!-,#% z ()/. (1/ "/,*#,.#$% &/ /'&/!*/ # / / ( (', #-/%&% $( NA /.#"$ /,# /$%,,/$% "#*/ "/ / %,*/%,1,2 / '! % #-, % (/%,*/% ( /( #+ #% (#*/ ( #-,#% "% /% /% '+. "# -)* $ ('$. (! (!(,#% ",,/ /'!*/ "#/ ',$ $ /& $. (44) /& '#-% % '+')"% (! #+ / $ +/.% $ (! *" "% "% '(')% (,/ /*, /!1 # / (,.+/ +, / '9(# % % "% /.+#""% #9'1% "/ '+')" (! #+. /, '#-% "% /.+#""% #9'1%. )".+/ $ % '#-% (!(,#% "/!/1 ( HDSS. +# / /.+# "!- " (41), / (', (# /& $ ( SNR. $, "!- " (41)!/ $ " /.+#"" #9'1 #&/.&%.#$% '+ #*/ /( #*/ (#*/ /*/ /% " z " ( (/- #!-,#% Mz ()/.,*#, "/ '+')",#% Mz / $ (45)

301 $ "/ # #-/" #"!/1 #-,.% " (/" " (! #+ "% # % "%, " $ " (! #+. % (/$"% #+/ / (!.+/ # (1/ "/ #-., $*% /! $ #%! ## 200-m - $ "! Polaroid photopolymer 500. "/ (! # "% "/ / /%, 100 ',## 9'1."/ # '1 $".' "%, $*% /!- 22. ( '- #!/(/ $ (/$"% /* $ 60 b/#m2 #+/ / (!.+/ # (1/ "/!/ & 100 # 0( 8!- 23 -/,# "% '+')"% '''&/ ',##*/ #- ( / $, ( #- (!" #&/% (1/ "/!/

302 . 23 -& # ) #$# *. 1 #!" 0,2. - #$ 200 m. ',$ + "# */ HDSS ( //, # #-!% 200$m, " '$" #$ "% ',##*/ / ( 1.0$m /! NA "% /% /% / ~ &#&/ 8<%*3/) -.#/) "#/1 -,, ", "/ /,/* " */ ',&/!*/ / /!" #". -/ (8(,#-/ "% +# /%. 3/ '$,##, $!" $, $*% /!. 24 (). # (8(,#-/" " #$* " /,/* "%, # /. $#/" (8(,#-/" " / /% / (/1% ('$, $*% /!. 24 (9). (1 " / /%, # +8()" "% "% /% "#*/, " / - % 9'& % ('$. ',#! #)+ */ '(',#-/*/ ',##*/ (.+9( ( '+/ $ %!(-% 9'& % -/ ',$ ('$.1( "% # / #*. $ "/ /,/* " # -/ (8(,#-/ " +# /%. 3/ -!- -!. $ (% (/% -! # '-% )% $)"%--//&/, (' ( /+(/ "/!(

303 . 24. #% ""! : () () -' % (8(,#-/"%- "% /,/* ", / (! # ) #:1!/1 1 # /-) (, 98 ( "+% #+% "/ $ " ( ( 1#% $ "/ :" "% )'$," "% */ /1*/ */ #- */ */ /'&/, #-/( $ " # " $/ " (!*%,:# /$% ',##%) / / (/1. +/, "!/1 +8()"%- "% ( % $% & %) "/ /$" "%,*,1% /$% - (8(,#-/( (1 "% pseudophase-' "%) /,( "% /% /% / ( " "% /,/* "%, " / #''/ ( /"", / # #,*# '(')% #$ "% (!" # # "' 1 *"#-/" " / /%. /''1 -,, " (. "/.1( " /$% (8(,#-/( " /,( "% % "% /% /%!" #&/% -/ /# '$,## [53]. 2.8 $#% HDSSs # /!" #"., / '-,1,% /8"1 %!*/ %."(#-/% '%!*/. 1 " /,/* ". ',##% ''' D #-% Fourier (" #1 (!1#% /81" "% 2-D #!"# #$% (- */."(#-/*/ $/*/), ''' 2-D (! # (',8/. </ '(',#-/ ',## $#( ( 8/ * $ SLM # /#/ /81" "% / /,,/ /"#(,"#-/% /% /%, # /! +" (% ( / /', % " +/#" (! #+ #)+ (!1#% /81" "% */."(#-/*/ '*/!*/.!+" /81" "%, / 9 #-/" $ "/ (/$",1%!*/, + "# (, *, # / $ 10 -*%100 Gb/s.,# ',##.-(/ "/ ( 1 '$" Bragg $ / % #-%,*/-% '',-% */ /*/ /,/* "% "/ Bragg-selective +.(/ ". (/-, /!- /81" "% (!"# /81" "%) #8 $ / ".- " ( # $ %."(#-/% $/%, /"#(,"#-/ 1# (! #+ /%. #*. ( '$,* ( + (/( #+ Bragg (Bragg mismatch). "/ Bragg-degenerate +.(/ ", " '$" Bragg / '+ /1, '' /"#(,"#-/ 1# /%. (,*/1 #$ " "/ Bragg-degenerate +.(/ " $ -/ $ /', % "!1 #$ " #)+ ( /#-/( /81" "% "%.- "% ( " #-/"."(#-/" $/. # #-/% /"#(,"#-/% /% /% #+// ' +/, $ /+ (! #+ CCD, / $ "/ /!/( " */ "#*/ (! #+ #-/( / ()". " ( (!- " "/ /', (!- "%

304 $,* "% -'':"%.$"% #$ "%, ', (! -% (correlators) $,( /,#-/, % /8"1 %! 1% 9 "% #-/*/ % %. ##/*#-/% #-%!*/ -! #.1 #-/".- " #-,##-/ '$,##. ',1 (/#1 #1 /81" "% ( /+ // -! "/ /$" /,: / /1 '(',#-/ ',## (,/ -/ LinBo3 + '' #,*/1 '+')", $*% /!- 25. (! #$% #% #% ',##*/ # -/ (. ' /81" "% # / /!/(. # " *,1 #"!/1 (! #+ CCD. ', #$ '-,!( - / '!. '$,## ( /! % //$%!#-% (! # " #$ "! " '. diode-pumped #%' YAG (DPSS 532), / " /,* #. #%' HeNe! &. ''' ',##,/ LinBo3 + ''!" #&/%,*# 90 # "/ 1 /$%.-",'9/#-*/ "/ /*/ /%. ",1 *$% (!" #+/! 1/ # % '-8 (/!&/ (#*/ (CW) # +/#" 400 mw #1% +#% 1 = 532nm. 3/ ##-/ nematic liquid-crystal SLM (1024*1024 pixels, #-,.% pixel 15.6*15.6 #m, video frame rate), ( /+!." $ "/, $,## HDSS!" #1." *% (/.-"% '*/. CCD *,1 #"!/1 /,/* "%!*/ ( " $ (% Dalsa, Waterloo, ON, Canada (1024*1024 pixels, pixel size 12*12 #m). -/ % -/ $/ " ''"&/ # -// (:"'1% $"% $ $/ "% ( ( " $ "/ ( Rochester Photonics Corporation, Rochester, NY,, "/ /) HDSS. / 9 "/ -/ " #-*/ (! #+ (,!" # # *,1 #"!/1 Kodak Megaplus CCD, -!/% 1008 (H) * (pixels (1018(V)pixels, 9 * 9 #,-.(% pixels, /$% center-to-center 1#% 9nm (20% fill ratio). 4" #1." -/ 8(, &/ /!/( "% F-theta, F =

305 100mm, #,*/ /!/( "% +-25, # "#*/ 12#m (!- 25). / '! ". " /.+#"" #9'1 / 9' ". ",/1 $ " */ ( "#*/, "# #)+ */ "#*/ (! #+ ()/!" # " #* " (.#+ */,##-/*/ ',##*/ 334- # "/!" #" " &/ pixel / (! # " % $ ## Kodak CCD100 #.!- 26 ( 8 -/,# ( #- (! #+ # "' $ /*/ /% &/ /!/( "% (100 ',##,"/). #$ + "#!" #1.", / ) %,1,% ''"'% /8"1 % #! 1 9 " #-/*/.! 1 9 " #-/*/ -! -,/*1 #1!*/ - & (,#-/! / 9 -/ (,#-/ #-% "%."(#-/"% ',1% '%, 9''/% (/- % ( '% ( (/-/ # "/ ',1.$" #$ "%. + "# ( Stanford, " 9 " #-/*/ )"% / #! 1 9 " #-/*/ ( -! % *-% '"%, (% /.&(%.!" 1 *"#-/" '!*/ (!" # "/ ( 8! " bitmap " "%!" *. ( bitmap! " &! SLM %.. % &! #!. & % " "% % & &% bitmap. ( # % % #! ) & $ " "%

306 /!. " ''"'" (/$" /81" "% #% ',1% (/#1% #/1#"%, 200 ',##."+"/,*# 90 Fe : LiNbO3.. '$,## / *+ -/! $ " 9 " #-/*/ )"%.,*/% /*/ /% '-!"/ - $ &. / /% " # #/1 # "% *,1% #"!/1% (! #+. 3/ # ',#-/ $,## -. "%!" #1.", / +! # #$#" /#1 $"%.' "% #)+ */ '(',#-/*/ ',##*/. ', #$ ), % #- % $(% */!" &/ -/ 9 $ bitmap! /81" "% # "!" #" " "% ''"'"% *" "% #$* "% "/ *" " "% # %.!- 27 ( 8 -/,# /81" "%!( bitmap. $( ( 8/ ' /81" "% SLM, " $/ */ "#*/ (! #+ 8 $ (! #$ CCD # #$8 " //" " % / % "#*/ (! #+, ', #$ ), % )/# $' "# (! #+ "% )*% */ #&/ -/ "% (! #+. 3/,# "% '(,% ( "#*/ /81" "% ( 8!1# $ " "% ',1% (/#1% #/1#"% )',1." % )% /81" "%. </ 1 $ (% - #% 9 */ #-/*/!" #1." *% ' &" "%, /#/$#/! 1/ #- ( - $ 200 '- # /81" "%. -/ #,'+ ' &" "% (,#%!/,!" #&/% (/( #$ ( /$#% ( '(( #- /$#% *% ' &" "%) +!."/ $# '+ '- # /81" "%.!- 28 / # #1 $/ (!" #1 # *% ' &" "%.,$/ % $ "% *,% ' &" "% -!(/ 9"., '' - $# * $!. /"#-/ '1% *$! (!- 29 ) / #!$!.. '(, /81" "% '#9/ )1%: +* " ( '+ /81" "% "/ / /#-/( * #$ */."(#-/*/ ',##*/, /!/( " ( 1#% (! #+, //" " +#*/ # "/ +/#" */ ',##*/, )/$#" " "% -/ "% (! #+,!," " */ ',#-/*/ "#*/ (! #+ %,*/% /*/ /%, /'" " ( ',#-/( ',##%, *" " "% /"#-/"% '%!*/ ' )" ( '- #% /81" "%. "#/ ( 1#, "#/$!/ 9'1# (/-/ # #"!/ (, "/ ), 1#% "/ )" ( /#-/( /81" "%..#'&% $ "/!+" /81" "% -! $ " 9 1 ), 1#%,*,1% (! #+ ()/$#" " //" "). -/ '$ hardware -/,1, SLM [$*% # #& #" ( (1.&/ 1000-ft/s Texas Instruments (DMD), #+/ / 9'.+/!+"% /81" "% /*."(#-/*/ pages/s. "/ IBM -,/ # -(/ (!1# 30) +#*/ # "/ (/"-% -'")/ $ # /81" " +, " '"% 8 $

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