Unit 16: Verbs, Indirect Statement, & Others. φημί, to say, affirm, assert. φημί: Present Indicative Active. φημί: Imperfect Indicative Active

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1 Unit 16: Verbs,, & Others In this unit, we ll cover a number of topics: φημί, to say, affirm, assert γιγνώσκω, to perceive, recognize, know This verb has a root aorist, ἔγνων The future optative The future infinitive Indirect statement Three types Other grammatical topics, including a new adjective and a new noun. φημί, to say, affirm, assert We learned most of the -μι verbs back in Unit 12, but there are still a few to learn. φημί is only used in the active, and is athematic in the present and imperfect tenses. It is conjugated almost exactly like ἵστημι, but: Like εἰμί, all forms in the present indicative active are enclitic except for the 2 nd singular Like other -μι verbs, φημί has a long- and a short-vowel grade stem: Long-vowel grade: φη- Short-vowel grade: φα- In the present and imperfect indicatives active, the long-vowel grade is used in the singular, and the short-vowel grade in the plural. Other tenses and moods use the short-vowel grade, as usual. 1 2 φημί: Present Indicative Active Let s look at the present indicative active. sg. pl. 1 φημί φαμέν φημί: Imperfect Indicative Active The imperfect indicative active and other tenses are not enclitic only the present indicative active (with the exception of 2 sg.) 2 φῄς φατέ 3 φησί(ν) φᾱσί(ν) 3 4

2 φημί: Imperfect Indicative Active sg. pl. 1 ἔφην ἔφαμεν 2 ἔφησθα/ἔφης ἔφατε 3 ἔφη ἔφασαν (For the first form of 2 sg., cf. ἦσθα from εἰμί) φημί: Present Subjunctive Active sg. pl. 1 φῶ (<*φέω) φῶμεν (<*φέωμεν) 2 φῇς (<*φέῃς) φῆτε (<*φέητε) 3 φῇ (<*φέῃ) φῶσι(ν) (<*φέωσι[ν]) Like other -μι verbs, φημί forms its subjunctive by contracting the stem vowel (in this case, the stem is φε-) when thematic subjunctive endings are added on. 5 6 φημί: Present Optative Active The present optative active is formed very similarly to -μι optatives we have previously seen, and uses the short-vowel grade of the stem. φημί: Present Optative Active sg. pl. 1 φαίην φαῖμεν/φαίημεν 2 φαίης φαῖτε/φαίητε 3 φαίη φαῖεν/φαίησαν 7 8

3 φημί: Present Imperative Active The present imperative active looks very similar to the aorist imperative active of ἵστημι, and uses the short-vowel grade of the stem. sg. pl. 2 φάθι φάτε 3 φάτω φάντων φημί: Present Infinitive Active & Participles The present infinitive active of φημί is similar to that of other -μι verbs: φάναι The present active participles are as follows: M. φάς, φάντος (stem φαντ-) F. φᾶσα, φάσης (stem φασ-) N. φάν, φάντος (stem φαντ-) Note that the masc. & neut. gen. pl., φάντων, is identical to the present imperative active 3 pl. In Attic prose, participial forms from φάσκω, to say, are used instead of these forms, however: e.g., φάσκων, φάσκουσα, φάσκον γιγνώσκω s Athematic Aorist System Now that we ve seen φημί and its quirks, we must look at another verb, γιγνώσκω. It is regular in other systems, but the aorist is athematic: ἔγνων Just as with ἵστημι, which also has a root aorist, there is no aorist middle system for γιγνώσκω. The aorist active stem comes in two forms: Long-vowel grade: γνω- Short-vowel grade: γνο- The long-vowel grade is used for the indicative, imperative, and infinitive; the short-vowel grade is used for the subjunctives and optatives, as well as the participial stems in the masc. & neut. γιγνώσκω: Aorist Systems For the aorist indicative active, we will conjugate it exactly like ἔστην (from ἵστημι), by adding the following endings to the augmented long-vowel grade of the stem: -ν, -ς, (none), -μεν, -τε, -σαν For the aorist subjunctive active, de-augment the stem, and we will conjugate it just like the equivalent forms in δίδωμι: γνῶ (<*γνόω), γνῷς (<*γνόῃς), γνῷ (<*γνόῃ), γνῶμεν (<*γνόωμεν), γνῶτε (<*γνόητε), γνῶσι(ν) (<*γνόωσι[ν]) The aorist optative active will add to the unaugmented short-vowel grade of the stem the endings -ιην, -ιης, -ιη, -ῖμεν/ιημεν, -ῖτε/ιητε, -ῖεν/ιησαν 11 12

4 γιγνώσκω: Aorist Systems The aorist imperative active is also formed very similarly to that of ἵστημι: 2 sg. γνῶθι, 2 pl. γνῶτε; 3 sg. γνώτω, 3 pl. γνόντων The aorist infinitive active is γνῶναι (cf. στῆναι from ἔστην) The participles are as follows: M. γνούς, γνόντος (stem γνοντ-) F. γνοῦσα, γνούσης (stem γνουσ-) N. γνόν, γνόντος (stem γνοντ-) Note the ο in γνόντων (rather than *γνώντων; cf. στάντων not *στήντων) Future Optatives The future optative system is used, among other things, to stand in place of a future indicative in one kind of indirect statement (which we ll talk about a little later). Thankfully, the future optatives are relatively easy to conjugate, since you all already know the endings Future Optatives The future optative active: Get the future active/middle stem: remove -ω or -ομαι from the 2 nd principal part Add the thematic present optative active endings: e.g., γράψοιμεν from γράφω For verbs with contracted futures, form them as if they were the present optative active of ποιέω or τιμάω. e.g., for μένω: μενοῖμεν/μενοίημεν (<*μενέοιμεν) ἐλαύνω s future is ἐλῶ (<*ἐλάω), conjugated like τιμάω: ἐλῷμεν (<*ἐλάοιμεν)/ἐλῴημεν (<*ἐλαοίημεν) (cf. Unit 17) Future Optatives The future optative middle: Get the future active/middle stem: remove -ω or -ομαι from the 2 nd principal part Add the thematic present optative middle/passive endings: e.g., γράψοιτο from γράφω For verbs with contracted futures, form them as if they were the present optative middle/passive of ποιέω or τιμάω. e.g., for μένω: μενοῖο (<*μενέοιο) ἐλαύνω s future is ἐλῶ (<*ἐλάω), conjugated like τιμάω: ἐλῴμεθα (<*ἐλαοίμεθα) 15 16

5 Future Optatives The future optative passive: Get the future passive stem: de-augment the 6 th principal part, remove -ην, and add -ησ- i.e., ἐβλήθην (< βάλλω) βληθησ- Add thematic present middle/passive optative endings to the stem: e.g., βληθήσοισθε from βάλλω Future Infinitives The future infinitive can stand in for a future indicative in one type of indirect statement, among other functions. The infinitives are relatively easy to form: Future active infinitive: add -ειν to the future active/middle stem. Recessive accent. e.g. φυλάξειν For verbs with contracted futures, form the infinitive like the present active infinitive of ποιέω or τιμάω: μενεῖν (<*μενέειν) Future middle infinitive: add -εσθαι to the future active/middle stem. Recessive accent; -αι counts as short for purposes of accentuation: κελεύσεσθαι For verbs with contracted futures, form the infinitive like the present middle/passive infinitive of ποιέω or τιμάω: μενεῖσθαι (<*μενέεσθαι) Future passive infinitive: add -εσθαι to the future passive stem. Recessive accent w/short -αι: δοθήσεσθαι (fr. δίδωμι) Generally, we speak in direct speech, or see things directly quoted, as in: He said, They were sacrificing goats to the gods. However, we also often encounter indirect speech, also called indirect statement (sometimes reported speech ). (Lat. oratio obliqua, lit. slanting speech vs. oratio recta, lit. upright/straight speech ) He said that they were sacrificing goats to the gods. Note that this is indirect because it is not a direct quotation from him, but what he reportedly said. The equivalent in direct speech would be: He said, They were sacrificing goats to the gods This is precisely what he said indirectly above. Greek has three formulae for indirect statement: Finite verb + ὅτι/ὡς Infinitive + Subject Accusative Participle + Subject Accusative 19 20

6 We ll start by talking about the first, finite verb + ὅτι/ὡς. Finite verb + ὅτι/ὡς + indirect statement The verb after ὅτι/ὡς depends on the sequence of the main clause. If the main verb is in a primary tense, the verbs in the indirect statement keep their original moods and tenses, and are translated accordingly. If the main verb is in a secondary tense, all verbs in the indirect statement change from indicative to optative of the same tense as the original statement. Negatives undergo no changes in either case. A verb of saying/speaking such as λέγω can introduce this type of indirect statement. Here are some examples: λέγομεν ὅτι οἱ γέροντες τοῖς ἄρχουσιν ἕπονται We are saying that the old men are following the archons. λέξεθ ὅτι τῶν ἄθλων ἀνάξιοι ἦμεν You all will say that we were unworthy of the prizes. εἶπες ὡς ὁ βασιλεὺς οὐ τιμῷτο ὑπὸ τοῦ δήμου. You said that the king was not being honored by the people (pres. opt.) εἶπον ὅτι ἡ φάλαγξ τὴν γέφυραν οὐ φυλάξειεν. I said that the phalanx did not guard the bridge (aor. opt.) Note that, when in secondary sequence, the tense of the optative should reflect the original tense of the verb if it were in direct speech. i.e., if the original verb was aorist, use aorist optative; if the original verb was present, use present optative. That said, if we want to express time subsequent to that of the main verb, we will use the future optative: εἶπεν ὅτι οἱ θεοὶ τοὺς ἀνθρώπους οὐ βλάψοιεν. He said that the gods would not harm humans Perfect indicative is represented in indirect statement by the perfect optative (cf. pp , 666); it is a rare occurrence. Sometimes, in secondary sequence, the verb in indirect statement is not changed to an optative. This is called a retained indicative. Makes the indirect statement more vivid Retained indicative is also used to represent imperfect and pluperfect in indirect statement. εἶπες ὅτι οἱ νεανίαι χρυσόν τε καὶ ἄργυρον ἔκλεπτον You said that the young men were stealing gold and silver. (impf.) 23 24

7 With this kind of indirect statement, the optative, when used in secondary sequence, can express relative time as well as aspect. Present optative: simultaneous with main verb Aorist optative: prior to main verb Future optative: subsequent to main verb The second kind of indirect statement is infinitive + subject accusative (accusative + infinitive, for short, if you like) In this kind, the indicative verb of the original statement in direct speech is replaced by an infinitive of the same tense. The subject of the original statement is shifted from the nominative to the accusative, and serves as the accusative subject of the infinitive. No introductory conjunction like ὅτι/ὡς The infinitive can show time as well as aspect: Present infinitive: simultaneous with main verb Aorist infinitive: prior to main verb Future infinitive: subsequent to main verb Perfect infinitive: completed action The imperfect and pluperfect can be represented by the present and perfect infinitives, if necessary. The verb νομίζω, to consider, think, believe, among others, can introduce infinitive + subject accusative indirect statement. νομίζομεν τοὺς ἄρχοντας τὰ χρήματα τοῦ δήμου κλέπτειν, we think that the archons are stealing the money of the people νομίζετε τὸν αἰσχρὸν βασιλέα τὰς ὑμετέρας οἰκίας λῦσαι, You all think that the shameful king destroyed your houses ἐνόμιζε τὸν διδάσκαλον τοὺς ἑαυτοῦ παῖδας εὖ διδάξαι, He thought that the teacher taught his (own) children well An easy way to visualize how this construction works is to translate quite literally: we think the archons to be stealing... ; you all think the shameful king to destroy (aor.)... ; he thought the teacher to teach (aor.)... It s fine to conceptualize it in this way, but don t translate like this

8 If the subject of the main verb and that of the infinitive are the same, do not use a subject accusative: ἐνόμισα τὸ ἆθλον νικήσειν, I thought that I would win the prize Note that the subject accusative must appear if the subject of the main verb and that of the indirect statement differ. Cf. ἐνόμισα αὐτὴν τὸ ἆθλον νικήσειν, I thought that she would win the prize While it is technically possible, it would not make sense to translate the first as I thought that the prize would win If there is a predicate adjective, it will agree with the accusative subject of the indirect statement: νομίζουσι τὴν ἀγορὰν καλὴν εἶναι, They think that the marketplace is beautiful However, if the subject of the main verb and that of the infinitive are the same as before, do not use a separate subject accusative: νομίζω εὐδαίμων εἶναι, I think that I am fortunate Cf. νομίζω τὸν ἐμαυτοῦ φίλον εὐδαίμον εἶναι, I think that my (own) friend is fortunate The third type of indirect statement involves a participle + subject accusative. This type is used with verbs such as ἀκούω, ἀγγέλλω, and αἰσθάνομαι The original indicative of the indirect statement is replaced by a participle of the same tense, and the subject of that original verb is shifted from the nominative to the accusative (hence participle + acc.) For example: I announce that the generals destroyed the bridge (indirect statement) I announce, The generals destroyed the bridge. (direct speech) The generals destroyed the bridge is what the subject is announcing, but it is not a direct quotation, hence indirect statement. As with infinitive + accusative, if the subject of the participle is the same as that of the main verb, the participle agrees with the subject of the main verb (= nominative). If the subject of the participle is different, it must appear in the accusative. Some examples with ἀγγέλλω: ἀγγέλλομεν τὸν δῆμον τὴν πόλιν λείποντα, We announce that the people are abandoning the city (pres.) ἀγγέλλετε τοὺς διδασκάλους χρυσὸν πᾶσι δόντας, You all announce that the teachers gave gold to all (aor.) ἤγγειλα Δημοσθένη τὴν ῥητορικὴν οὐ γιγνώσκοντα, I announced that Demosthenes did not understand rhetoric (pres. = same time as main vb. [aor.]) 31 32

9 Some examples with αἰσθάνομαι: αἰσθάνεται τὴν πόλιν ἀδικῶν, He perceives that he is doing wrong to the city (subj. of main vb. & part. = the same) αἰσθανόμεθ αὐτὰς τιμῆς ἀξίας οὔσας, We perceive that they are worthy of honor (other people) Some examples with ἀκούω: ἀκούεις τοὺς ἄρχοντας αἰσχρῶς βλαβέντας, You hear that the archons were shamefully harmed (aor. pass.) However, ἀκούω can also take its normal object in the genitive, paired with a participle, to point out something that was physically perceived (vs. intellectually, as with ἀκούω + indir. st.): ἤκουσα Δημοσθένους αἰσχρὰ λέγοντος, I heard Demosthenes speaking shameful things (heard with my own ears, not heard from someone else) Do make sure to note the list on p. 470 of verbs which introduce indirect statement. This will be a helpful list of guidelines when trying to determine what type of indirect statement is being used after what verb Retained Subjunctive Sometimes, for the sake of vividness, purpose and fear clauses can retain their subjunctive in secondary sequence, rather than changing it to an optative. This is called retained subjunctive. Example: ἐφοβεῖσθε μὴ τοὺς ἡμετέρους φίλους ὁρῶμεν, You all feared that we might/would see our friends (not ὁρῷμεν or ὁρῴημεν opt.) πολύς, πολλή, πολύ πολύς is a hybrid sort of adjective meaning much (sg.) or many (pl.) It has forms from the 1 st, 2 nd, and 3 rd declensions The masc. & neut. nom. & acc. sg. are from the 3 rd declension, and are built off the stem πολυ- The rest of the forms are like -ος, -η, -ον adjectives, and are built from the stem πολλ

10 πολύς, πολλή, πολύ Let s look at the forms: sg. (masc.) pl. N πολύς πολλοί G πολλοῦ πολλῶν D πολλῷ πολλοῖς Ac πολύν πολλούς πολύς, πολλή, πολύ Let s look at the forms: sg. (fem.) pl. N πολλή πολλαί G πολλῆς πολλῶν D πολλῇ πολλαῖς Ac πολλήν πολλάς πολύς, πολλή, πολύ Let s look at the forms: sg. (neut.) pl. N πολύ πολλά G πολλοῦ πολλῶν D πολλῷ πολλοῖς Ac πολύ πολλά ναῦς, νεώς, ἡ ship We need to look at a noun which has some irregular and idiosyncratic forms, ναῦς, the word for ship. The genitive was originally νηός, but underwent quantitative metathesis (cf. βασιλέως from *βασιλῆος, πόλεως from *πόληος), switching the quantity of each vowel from long short or vice versa. The νη- stem only survives in the dat. sg. and nom./voc. pl.; the rest are νε- or ναυ

11 ναῦς, νεώς, ἡ ship Let s go through the forms of ναῦς: sg. pl. N ναῦς νῆες G νεώς νεῶν D νηί ναυσί(ν) Ac ναῦν ναῦς V ναῦ νῆες Note that nom. sg. & acc. pl. are identical. 41