Forest Products Chemistry

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Βαριησού Αγγελόπουλος
6 χρόνια πριν
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1 Papermaking Science and Technology a series of 19 books covering the latest technology and future trends Book 3 Forest Products Chemistry Series editors Johan Gullichsen, Helsinki University of Technology Hannu Paulapuro, Helsinki University of Technology Book editor Per Stenius, Helsinki University of Technology Series reviewer Brian Attwood, St. Anne s Paper and Paperboard Developments, Ltd. Book reviewer Thomas Joyce, Western Michigan University Cyril Heitner, PAPRICAN Published in cooperation with the Finnish Paper Engineers' Association and TAPPI

2 Table of Contents 1. Structure and chemical composition of wood Basic chemistry of wood delignification Analytical methods Macromolecular, surface, and colloid chemistry Brightness reversion Conversion factors Index

3 CHAPTER 1 Structure and chemical composition of wood 1 Introduction Fundamental structure of wood and fibers Macroscopic structure Cross-sectional appearance Tree growth Cell types Softwood cells Hardwood cells Pits Cell wall layering Reaction wood Compression and tension wood Other special tissues Chemical composition and distribution Gross composition Distribution of the wood constituents Chemistry of the wood constituents Carbohydrates Lignin Lignin-hemicellulose bonds Extractives Inorganic components References

4 CHAPTER 2 Basic chemistry of wood delignification 1 Introduction Pulping methods General aspects Kraft pulping Process description Lignin reactions Reactions of the polysaccharides Behavior of extractives Pulping by-products Combustion of black liquor Chemical modifications to improve yield Sulfite pulping Pulping systems Reaction of the wood constituents Spent liquor utilization Oxygen-alkali delignification General considerations Basic chemistry Reactions of the pulp constituents Bleaching Principles and definitions General reactions Lignin Carbohydrates Extractives References

5 CHAPTER 3 Analytical methods 1 Introduction and scope Different analytical objectives and methods Analytical objectives and planning Types of samples in pulp and paper industry Off-line and on-line analysis Standard methods and research methods Basics of common chromatographic and spectrometric techniques Liquid chromatography Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry UV-Vis spectrometry Infrared (IR) and Raman spectrometry NMR spectroscopy MALDI-TOF-MS Instrumental techniques for inorganics Aspects of sampling and sample storage Sample preparation Drying and grinding Moisture determination Isolation and structural determination of wood and pulp components Cellulose and hemicelluloses Lignin Extractives Analysis of sulfate soap and tall oil Inorganics Direct summative analysis of wood, pulp, and paper Spectrometric and chromatographic determination of wood components Determination of functional groups Spectroscopic determination of surface composition ESCA Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) Analysis of nonwood constitutents in paper and paperboard Latex and other coating components Starch Sizing agents

6 CHAPTER Cellulose derivatives Miscellaneous additives Analysis of deposits and specks Direct analytical methods Fractionation and analysis Analysis of kraft pulp mill liquors and effluents Organics in kraft cooking liquors Organics in spent bleaching liquors and kraft mill effluents Analysis of paper mill process waters and effluents Separation of dissolved and colloidal substances A practical integrated analytical scheme References

7 CHAPTER 4 Macromolecular, surface, and colloid chemistry 1 Macromolecular and colloid chemistry in forest products technology Fundamental properties of interfaces, macromolecules, and colloids Interfacial tension Adsorption Colloids Dynamic processes in colloidal systems Flow and relaxation Sediment structure Colloids in pulping and papermaking Surface tension, adhesion, and wetting Molecular interpretation of surface tension Adhesion and cohesion The surface energy of solids Contact angle, wetting, and spreading Critical surface tension The strength of adhesive joints Intermolecular interactions Determination of LW and AB properties of surfaces The Young-Laplace equation The Kelvin equation Adsorption Surface concentrations The Gibbs adsorption equation Adsorption at the air-liquid interface Adsorption at the solid-liquid interface Classification of isotherms Adsorption model Adsorption at the gas-liquid interface Classification of isotherms The Langmuir isotherm The BET isotherm Surfactants Amphiphilic molecules Micelles Factors affecting micelle formation

8 CHAPTER The surfactant number Kinetics of micelle formation Solubilization Lyotropic liquid crystalline phases Binary systems The Krafft boundary Surfactants in pulping and papermaking Formation of micelles and solubilization Solubility and formation of liquid crystalline phases Adsorption of surfactants at solid surfaces General description Polymers in solution The chemical structure of polymers Molecular weight, polydispersity, degree of substitution The conformation and dimensions of polymers The radius of gyration Polymer solubility The Flory-Huggins theory of polymer solubility Regular solutions The Flory-Huggins theory of polymer solutions The θ temperature Interaction parameter and solubility parameter Polyelectrolytes Interaction of polymers with solid surfaces Characteristic features of polymer adsorption The effect of molecular weight on adsorption The effect of polydispersity Adsorption in turbulent flow Adsorption of polyelectrolytes Desorption of polymers The stability of lyophobic colloids What is colloidal stability? Van der Waals interactions Electrostatic interactions between particles in liquids The origin of surface charge The structure of the electric double layer Charge and potential in the Stern layer Ion distribution in the diffuse layer

9 CHAPTER Exchangeable ions Electrostatically stabilized colloids Interaction between double layers The DLVO theory of colloidal stability Kinetics of coagulation Coagulation of dilute dispersions Brownian motion Coagulation in the presence of colloidal interactions the stability ratio Electrophoretic mobility and zeta potential Electrophoretic mobility and electrophoresis The zeta potential The isoelectric point The streaming potential Determination of surface charge by titration Conductometric titration Potentiometric titration Polyelectrolyte adsorption The effects of polymers on colloidal stability General Steric stabilization Properties of sterically stabilized colloids Steric stabilization and polymer solubility Distance dependence of steric stabilization Polymers as flocculants Charge neutralization Flocculation by bridging Patch flocculation Polyelectrolyte complexes Hydrodynamic interactions References

10 CHAPTER 5 Brightness reversion 1 Introduction Concepts related to brightness reversion/yellowing/discoloration Chromophore formation Determination of brightness, Y value, and opacity Light absorption and light scattering Ways to calculate brightness reversion Brightness changes Post color numbers Ways to evaluate changes in the optical properties Color measurements UV-VIS spectra: R, k, and s spectra Fluorescence Other methods Standard methods to evaluate brightness reversion/yellowing Focus on the wood pulp paper cycle Complexity of the reversion problem The end product Strategies to solve the reversion problem Yellowing behavior and the diversity of pulps Mechanical pulps Chemimechanical pulps Chemical pulps Photochemical and thermal yellowing Light sources Surface and bulk phenomena Effect of both light and heat Effect of humidity and oxygen Factors affecting brightness reversion: Content-related factors The raw material Process water Metal ions ph Extractives Oxidation of extractives Nonvolatile and volatile products Highly colored extractives Resin acids

11 CHAPTER Lignin and residual lignin Hemicellulose Cellulose Paper chemicals (retention aids, wet-strength reagents, etc.) Dyes Fluorescent brighteners (recycled fibers, reclaimed paper) Coating color components Factors affecting brightness reversion: Process-related factors Pulping method Groundwood and refiner pulps Kraft and sulfite pulps Organosolv pulps Enzyme treatments Sulfonation Bleaching Alkali stage and washing Microbiological contamination Drying Storage and transportation Characteristics of chromophore formation: Kinetics and mechanism Kinetics of chromophore formation The mechanism of photoyellowing Monochromatic irradiation of high-yield pulps Action spectra of pulps and paper Photocycling of lignocellulosic pulps Photochromism in cellulosic pulps Mechanism of thermal yellowing Counteracting brightness reversion Bulk or surface treatment? Methods of stabilization Modification of functional groups Antioxidants and UV absorbers Polymeric stabilizers Mechanical pulps Chemical pulps Surface treatment of paper References

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