Marius Grundmann The Physics of Semiconductors

Marius Grundmann The Physics of Semiconductors

Marius Grundmann The Physics of Semiconductors An Introduction Including Devices and Nanophysics With 587 Figures, 6 in Color, and 36 Tables 123

Marius Grundmann Institut für Experimentelle Physik II Universität Leipzig Linnéstraße 5 04103 Leipzig e-mail: grundmann@physik.uni-leipzig.de Library of Congress Control Number: 2006923434 ISBN-10 3-540-25370-X Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York ISBN-13 978-3-540-25370-9 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media springer.com Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2006 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Typesetting: Protago-TEX-Production GmbH, Berlin Production: LE-TEXJelonek,Schmidt&VöcklerGbR,Leipzig Cover design: estudio Calamar S.L., F. Steinen-Broo, Pau/Girona, Spain Printed on acid-free paper 57/3100/YL 543210

To Michelle, Sophia Charlotte and Isabella Rose

Preface Semiconductor devices are nowadays commonplace in every household. In the late 1940s the invention of the transistor was the start of a rapid development towards ever faster and smaller electronic components. Complex systems are built with these components. The main driver of this development was the economical benefit from packing more and more wiring, transistors and functionality on a single chip. Now every human is left with about 100 million transistors (on average). Semiconductor devices have also enabled economically reasonable fiber-based optical communication, optical storage and highfrequency amplification and have only recently revolutionized photography, display technology and lighting. Along with these tremendous technological developments, semiconductors have changed the way we work, communicate, entertain and think. The technological sophistication of semiconductor materials and devices is progressing continuously with a large worldwide effort in human and monetary capital, partly evolutionary, partly revolutionary embracing the possibilities of nanotechnology. For students, semiconductors offer a rich, diverse and exciting field with a great tradition and a bright future. This book is based on the two semester semiconductor physics course taught at Universität Leipzig. The material gives the students an overview of the subject as a whole and brings them to the point where they can specialize and enter supervised laboratory research. For the interested reader some additional topics are included in the book that are taught in subsequent, more specialized courses. The first semester contains the fundamentals of semiconductor physics (Part I Chaps. 1 17). Besides important aspects of solid-state physics such as crystal structure, lattice vibrations and band structure, semiconductor specifics such as technologically relevant materials and their properties, electronic defects, recombination, hetero- and nanostructures are discussed. Semiconductors with electric polarization and magnetization are introduced. The emphasis is put on inorganic semiconductors, but a brief introduction to organic semiconductors is given in Chap. 16. In Chap. 17 dielectric structures are treated. Such structures can serve as mirrors, cavities and microcavities and are a vital part of many semiconductor devices. The second part (Part II Chaps. 18 21) is dedicated to semiconductor applications and devices that are taught in the second semester of the

VIII Preface course. After a general and detailed discussion of various diode types, their applications in electrical circuits, photodetectors, solar cells, light-emitting diodes and lasers are treated. Finally, bipolar and field-effect transistors are discussed. The course is designed to provide a balance between aspects of solid-state and semiconductor physics and the concepts of various semiconductor devices and their applications in electronic and photonic devices. The book can be followed with little or no pre-existing knowledge in solid-state physics. I would like to thank several colleagues for their various contributions to this book, in alphabetical order (if no affiliation is given, from Universität Leipzig): Klaus Bente, Rolf Böttcher, Volker Gottschalch, Axel Hoffmann (Technische Universität Berlin), Alois Krost (Otto-von-Guericke Universität Magdeburg), Michael Lorenz, Thomas Nobis, Rainer Pickenhain, Hans- Joachim Queisser (Max-Planck-Institut für Festkörperforschung, Stuttgart), Bernd Rauschenbach (Leibniz-Institut für Oberflächenmodifizierung, Leipzig), Bernd Rheinländer, Heidemarie Schmidt, Rüdiger Schmidt-Grund, Mathias Schubert, Gerald Wagner, Holger von Wenckstern, Michael Ziese, and Gregor Zimmermann. Their comments, proof reading and graphic material improved this work. Also, numerous helpful comments from my students on my lectures and on preliminary versions of the present text are gratefully acknowledged. I am also indebted to many other colleagues, in particular to (in alphabetical order) Gerhard Abstreiter, Zhores Alferov, Levon Asryan, Günther Bauer, Manfred Bayer, Immanuel Broser, Jürgen Christen, Laurence Eaves, Ulrich Gösele, Alfred Forchel, Manus Hayne, Frank Heinrichsdorff, Fritz Henneberger, Detlev Heitmann, Robert Heitz, Nils Kirstaedter, Fred Koch, Nikolai Ledentsov, Evgeni Kaidashev, Eli Kapon, Claus Klingshirn, Jörg Kotthaus, Axel Lorke, Anupam Madhukar, Bruno Meyer, David Mowbray, Hisao Nakashima, Mats-Erik Pistol, Fred Pollak, Volker Riede, Hiroyuki Sakaki, Lars Samuelson, Vitali Shchukin, Maurice Skolnick, Oliver Stier, Robert Suris, Volker Türck, Konrad Unger, Victor Ustinov, Leonid Vorob jev, Richard Warburton, Alexander Weber, Eicke Weber, Peter Werner, Ulrike Woggon, Roland Zimmermann and Alex Zunger, with whom I have worked closely, had enjoyable discussions with and who have posed questions that stimulated me. I reserve special thanks for Dieter Bimberg, who supported me throughout my career. I leave an extra niche as the Romans did, in order not to provoke the anger of a God missed in a row of statues for those who had an impact on my scientific life and that I have omitted to mention. Leipzig, January 2006 Marius Grundmann

Contents Abbreviations...XXI Symbols... XXVII Physical Constants... XXXI 1 Introduction... 1 1.1 Timetable... 1 1.2 NobelPrizeWinners... 7 1.3 GeneralInformation... 9 Part I Fundamentals 2 Bonds... 15 2.1 Introduction... 15 2.2 CovalentBonds... 15 2.2.1 Electron-PairBond... 15 2.2.2 sp 3 Bond... 15 2.2.3 sp 2 Bond... 19 2.3 IonicBonds... 21 2.4 MixedBond... 23 2.5 Metallic Bond... 25 2.6 van-der-waalsbond... 26 2.7 HamiltonOperatoroftheSolid... 27 3 Crystals... 29 3.1 Introduction... 29 3.2 CrystalStructure... 29 3.3 Lattice... 30 3.3.1 UnitCell... 30 3.3.2 PointGroup... 31 3.3.3 SpaceGroup... 33 3.3.4 2DBravaisLattices... 34 3.3.5 3DBravaisLattices... 34 3.3.6 Polycrystalline Semiconductors... 39

X Contents 3.3.7 Amorphous Semiconductors... 39 3.4 ImportantCrystalStructures... 40 3.4.1 RocksaltStructure... 41 3.4.2 CsClStructure... 41 3.4.3 DiamondStructure... 41 3.4.4 ZincblendeStructure... 42 3.4.5 WurtziteStructure... 43 3.4.6 ChalcopyriteStructure... 45 3.4.7 DelafossiteStructure... 46 3.4.8 PerovskiteStructure... 48 3.4.9 NiAsStructure... 48 3.5 Polytypism... 48 3.6 ReciprocalLattice... 50 3.6.1 ReciprocalLatticeVectors... 51 3.6.2 Miller Indices... 52 3.6.3 Brillouin Zone... 54 3.7 Alloys... 54 3.7.1 RandomAlloys... 55 3.7.2 PhaseDiagram... 57 3.7.3 VirtualCrystalApproximation... 59 3.7.4 LatticeParameter... 59 3.7.5 Ordering... 61 4 Defects... 63 4.1 Introduction... 63 4.2 PointDefects... 63 4.3 ThermodynamicsofDefects... 65 4.4 Dislocations... 67 4.5 StackingFaults... 71 4.6 Grain Boundaries... 72 4.7 AntiphaseandInversionDomains... 73 4.8 Disorder... 76 5 Mechanical Properties... 77 5.1 Introduction... 77 5.2 LatticeVibrations... 77 5.2.1 MonoatomicLinearChain... 77 5.2.2 DiatomicLinearChain... 80 5.2.3 Lattice Vibrations of a Three-Dimensional Crystal. 84 5.2.4 Phonons... 86 5.2.5 LocalizedVibrationalModes... 87 5.2.6 PhononsinAlloys... 89 5.2.7 ElectricFieldCreatedbyOpticalPhonons... 91 5.3 Elasticity... 94 5.3.1 Stress Strain Relation... 94

Contents XI 5.3.2 BiaxialStrain... 99 5.3.3 Three-DimensionalStrain... 100 5.3.4 Substrate Bending... 102 5.3.5 Scrolling... 103 5.3.6 CriticalThickness... 105 5.4 Cleaving... 109 6 Band Structure... 111 6.1 Introduction... 111 6.2 Bloch stheorem... 111 6.3 Free-ElectronDispersion... 112 6.4 Kronig PenneyModel... 114 6.5 ElectronsinaPeriodicPotential... 116 6.5.1 Approximate Solution at the Zone Boundary... 117 6.5.2 Solution in the Vicinity of the Zone Boundary... 118 6.5.3 Kramer sdegeneracy... 119 6.6 Band Structure of Selected Semiconductors... 119 6.6.1 Silicon... 119 6.6.2 Germanium... 119 6.6.3 GaAs... 119 6.6.4 GaP... 120 6.6.5 GaN... 120 6.6.6 LeadSalts... 121 6.6.7 Chalcopyrites... 122 6.6.8 Delafossites... 123 6.6.9 Perovskites... 123 6.7 Alloy Semiconductors... 124 6.8 Amorphous Semiconductors... 125 6.9 Systematics of Semiconductor Bandgaps... 125 6.10 TemperatureDependenceoftheBandgap... 129 6.11 EquationofElectronMotion... 131 6.12 ElectronMass... 132 6.12.1 EffectiveMass... 132 6.12.2 PolaronMass... 135 6.12.3 NonparabolicityofElectronMass... 136 6.13 Holes... 136 6.13.1 HoleConcept... 136 6.13.2 HoleDispersionRelation... 138 6.13.3 Valence-BandFineStructure... 140 6.14 StrainEffectontheBandStructure... 142 6.14.1 StraineffectonBandEdges... 143 6.14.2 Strain Effect on Effective Masses... 144 6.15 DensityofStates... 144 6.15.1 GeneralBandStructure... 144 6.15.2 Free-ElectronGas... 145

XII Contents 7 Electronic Defect States... 149 7.1 Introduction... 149 7.2 FermiDistribution... 149 7.3 CarrierConcentration... 151 7.4 Intrinsic Conduction... 153 7.5 ShallowImpurities,Doping... 156 7.5.1 Donors... 157 7.5.2 Acceptors... 164 7.5.3 Compensation... 167 7.5.4 AmphotericImpurities... 170 7.5.5 HighDoping... 171 7.6 Quasi-FermiLevels... 174 7.7 DeepLevels... 175 7.7.1 ChargeStates... 176 7.7.2 Jahn TellerEffect... 177 7.7.3 Negative-U Center... 178 7.7.4 DXCenter... 180 7.7.5 EL2Defect... 182 7.7.6 Semi-insulating Semiconductors... 183 7.7.7 SurfaceStates... 184 7.8 Hydrogen in Semiconductors... 185 8 Transport... 189 8.1 Introduction... 189 8.2 Conductivity... 190 8.3 Low-FieldTransport... 191 8.3.1 Mobility... 191 8.3.2 Microscopic Scattering Processes... 192 8.3.3 IonizedImpurityScattering... 193 8.3.4 DeformationPotentialScattering... 193 8.3.5 PiezoelectricPotentialScattering... 194 8.3.6 PolarOpticalScattering... 194 8.3.7 TemperatureDependence... 194 8.4 HallEffect... 197 8.5 High-FieldTransport... 200 8.5.1 Drift-SaturationVelocity... 200 8.5.2 VelocityOvershoot... 201 8.5.3 ImpactIonization... 202 8.6 High-FrequencyTransport... 205 8.7 Diffusion... 205 8.8 ContinuityEquation... 206 8.9 Heat Conduction... 207 8.10 CoupledHeatandChargeTransport... 209 8.10.1 SeebeckEffect... 209 8.10.2 PeltierEffect... 210

Contents XIII 9 Optical Properties... 213 9.1 SpectralRegionsandOverview... 213 9.2 ReflectionandDiffraction... 214 9.3 Electron PhotonInteraction... 216 9.4 Band BandTransitions... 219 9.4.1 JointDensityofStates... 219 9.4.2 DirectTransitions... 219 9.4.3 IndirectTransitions... 221 9.4.4 UrbachTail... 223 9.4.5 Intravalence-BandAbsorption... 225 9.4.6 Amorphous Semiconductors... 225 9.4.7 Excitons... 225 9.4.8 ExcitonPolariton... 229 9.4.9 Bound-Exciton Absorption... 232 9.4.10 Biexcitons... 234 9.4.11 Trions... 235 9.4.12 Burstein MossShift... 235 9.4.13 BandgapRenormalization... 236 9.4.14 Electron Hole Droplets... 238 9.4.15 Two-PhotonAbsorption... 239 9.5 ImpurityAbsorption... 240 9.6 Free-CarrierAbsorption... 242 9.7 LatticeAbsorption... 245 9.7.1 DielectricConstant... 245 9.7.2 Reststrahlenbande... 246 9.7.3 Polaritons... 248 9.7.4 Phonon PlasmonCoupling... 249 10 Recombination... 251 10.1 Introduction... 251 10.2 Band BandRecombination... 251 10.2.1 SpontaneousEmission... 251 10.2.2 Absorption... 252 10.2.3 StimulatedEmission... 253 10.2.4 NetRecombinationRate... 253 10.2.5 RecombinationDynamics... 254 10.2.6 Lasing... 256 10.3 Free-ExcitonRecombination... 256 10.4 Bound-Exciton Recombination... 258 10.5 AlloyBroadening... 260 10.6 PhononReplica... 261 10.7 Donor Acceptor Pair Transitions... 265 10.8 Inner-ImpurityRecombination... 267 10.9 AugerRecombination... 267 10.10 Band ImpurityRecombination... 268

XIV Contents 10.11 FieldEffect... 272 10.11.1 ThermallyActivatedEmission... 272 10.11.2 Direct Tunneling... 273 10.11.3 Assisted Tunneling... 273 10.12 MultilevelTraps... 273 10.13 SurfaceRecombination... 274 10.14 Excess-Carrier Profiles... 274 11 Heterostructures... 277 11.1 Introduction... 277 11.2 GrowthMethods... 277 11.3 MaterialCombinations... 280 11.3.1 PseudomorphicStructures... 280 11.3.2 Heterosubstrates... 280 11.4 BandLineupinHeterostructures... 285 11.5 EnergyLevelsinHeterostructures... 286 11.5.1 QuantumWell... 286 11.5.2 Superlattices... 293 11.5.3 Single Heterointerface Between Doped Materials.. 293 11.6 RecombinationinQuantumWells... 295 11.7 IsotopeSuperlattices... 299 11.8 WaferBonding... 300 12 External Fields... 303 12.1 ElectricFields... 303 12.1.1 BulkMaterial... 303 12.1.2 QuantumWells... 305 12.2 MagneticFields... 306 12.2.1 Free-CarrierAbsorption... 307 12.2.2 EnergyLevelsinBulkCrystals... 308 12.2.3 EnergyLevelsina2DEG... 309 12.2.4 Shubnikov de Haas Oscillations... 310 12.3 QuantumHallEffect... 313 12.3.1 IntegralQHE... 313 12.3.2 FractionalQHE... 317 12.3.3 Weiss Oscillations... 318 13 Nanostructures... 321 13.1 Introduction... 321 13.2 QuantumWires... 321 13.2.1 PreparationMethods... 321 13.2.2 Quantization in Two-Dimensional Potential Wells. 328 13.3 QuantumDots... 328 13.3.1 Quantization in Three-Dimensional PotentialWells... 328

Contents XV 13.3.2 ElectricalandTransportProperties... 331 13.3.3 Self-Assembled Preparation... 336 13.3.4 OpticalProperties... 341 14 Polarized Semiconductors... 345 14.1 Introduction... 345 14.2 SpontaneousPolarization... 345 14.3 Ferroelectricity... 346 14.3.1 Materials... 348 14.3.2 SoftPhononMode... 348 14.3.3 PhaseTransition... 348 14.3.4 Domains... 352 14.3.5 OpticalProperties... 353 14.4 Piezoelectricity... 353 15 Magnetic Semiconductors... 359 15.1 Introduction... 359 15.2 Magnetic Semiconductors... 359 15.3 Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors... 361 15.4 Spintronics... 365 15.4.1 SpinTransistor... 366 15.4.2 SpinLED... 367 16 Organic Semiconductors... 369 16.1 Materials... 369 16.2 Properties... 371 17 Dielectric Structures... 375 17.1 Photonic-BandgapMaterials... 375 17.1.1 Introduction... 375 17.1.2 General1DScatteringTheory... 375 17.1.3 Transmission of an N-PeriodPotential... 377 17.1.4 TheQuarter-WaveStack... 379 17.1.5 Formationofa3DBandStructure... 382 17.1.6 DefectModes... 385 17.1.7 CouplingtoanElectronicResonance... 387 17.2 MicroscopicResonators... 390 17.2.1 Microdiscs... 390 17.2.2 PurcellEffect... 392 17.2.3 DeformedResonators... 393 17.2.4 Hexagonal Cavities... 395

XVI Contents Part II Applications 18 Diodes... 401 18.1 Introduction... 401 18.2 Metal Semiconductor Contacts... 402 18.2.1 Band Diagram in Equilibrium... 402 18.2.2 Space-ChargeRegion... 407 18.2.3 SchottkyEffect... 409 18.2.4 Capacitance... 410 18.2.5 Current VoltageCharacteristic... 412 18.2.6 OhmicContacts... 421 18.2.7 Metal Contacts to Organic Semiconductors... 424 18.3 Metal Insulator Semiconductor Diodes... 425 18.3.1 BandDiagramforIdealMISDiode... 427 18.3.2 Space-ChargeRegion... 428 18.3.3 Capacity... 432 18.3.4 NonidealMISDiode... 435 18.4 BipolarDiodes... 435 18.4.1 BandDiagram... 436 18.4.2 Space-ChargeRegion... 437 18.4.3 Capacitance... 442 18.4.4 Current VoltageCharacteristics... 443 18.4.5 Breakdown... 454 18.5 ApplicationsandSpecialDiodeDevices... 457 18.5.1 Rectification... 457 18.5.2 Frequency Mixing... 460 18.5.3 VoltageRegulator... 462 18.5.4 ZenerDiodes... 463 18.5.5 Varactors... 463 18.5.6 Fast-RecoveryDiodes... 466 18.5.7 Step-RecoveryDiodes... 466 18.5.8 pin-diodes... 468 18.5.9 Tunneling Diodes... 469 18.5.10 BackwardDiodes... 471 18.5.11 HeterostructureDiodes... 471 19 Light-to-Electricity Conversion... 473 19.1 Photocatalysis... 473 19.2 Photoconductors... 475 19.2.1 Introduction... 475 19.2.2 Photoconductivity Detectors... 475 19.2.3 Electrophotography... 477 19.2.4 QWIPs... 477 19.2.5 BlockedImpurity-BandDetectors... 482

Contents XVII 19.3 Photodiodes... 484 19.3.1 Introduction... 484 19.3.2 pnphotodiodes... 484 19.3.3 pinphotodiodes... 487 19.3.4 Position-SensingDetector... 489 19.3.5 MSMPhotodiodes... 490 19.3.6 AvalanchePhotodiodes... 495 19.3.7 Traveling-WavePhotodetectors... 498 19.3.8 ChargeCoupledDevices... 501 19.3.9 PhotodiodeArrays... 509 19.4 SolarCells... 511 19.4.1 SolarRadiation... 511 19.4.2 IdealSolarCells... 513 19.4.3 RealSolarCells... 516 19.4.4 DesignRefinements... 516 19.4.5 Solar-CellTypes... 517 19.4.6 CommercialIssues... 520 20 Electricity-to-Light Conversion... 523 20.1 RadiometricandPhotometricQuantities... 523 20.1.1 RadiometricQuantities... 523 20.1.2 PhotometricQuantities... 523 20.2 Scintillators... 524 20.2.1 CIEChromaticityDiagram... 525 20.2.2 DisplayApplications... 528 20.2.3 RadiationDetection... 528 20.2.4 Luminescence Mechanisms... 530 20.3 Light-EmittingDiodes... 531 20.3.1 Introduction... 531 20.3.2 SpectralRanges... 531 20.3.3 QuantumEfficiency... 532 20.3.4 DeviceDesign... 533 20.4 Lasers... 539 20.4.1 Introduction... 539 20.4.2 Applications... 542 20.4.3 Gain... 543 20.4.4 OpticalMode... 547 20.4.5 LossMechanisms... 552 20.4.6 Threshold... 554 20.4.7 SpontaneousEmissionFactor... 555 20.4.8 OutputPower... 555 20.4.9 TemperatureDependence... 559 20.4.10 ModeSpectrum... 560 20.4.11 LongitudinalSingle-ModeLasers... 560 20.4.12 Tunability... 562

XVIII Contents 20.4.13 Modulation... 564 20.4.14 Surface-emittingLasers... 568 20.4.15 Optically Pumped Semiconductor Lasers... 571 20.4.16 QuantumCascadeLasers... 573 20.4.17 Hot-HoleLasers... 573 20.5 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers... 575 21 Transistors... 577 21.1 Introduction... 577 21.2 BipolarTransistors... 577 21.2.1 CarrierDensityandCurrents... 579 21.2.2 CurrentAmplification... 582 21.2.3 Ebers MollModel... 583 21.2.4 Current VoltageCharacteristics... 585 21.2.5 BasicCircuits... 588 21.2.6 High-FrequencyProperties... 589 21.2.7 HeterobipolarTransistors... 590 21.2.8 Light-emittingTransistors... 590 21.3 Field-EffectTransistors... 592 21.4 JFETandMESFET... 593 21.4.1 GeneralPrinciple... 593 21.4.2 StaticCharacteristics... 594 21.4.3 NormallyOnandNormallyOffFETs... 597 21.4.4 Field-Dependent Mobility... 598 21.4.5 High-FrequencyProperties... 601 21.5 MOSFETs... 601 21.5.1 OperationPrinciple... 601 21.5.2 Current VoltageCharacteristics... 602 21.5.3 MOSFETTypes... 606 21.5.4 ComplementaryMOS... 608 21.5.5 Large-ScaleIntegration... 610 21.5.6 NonvolatileMemories... 614 21.5.7 Heterojunction FETs... 615 21.6 Thin-Film Transistors... 619 Part III Appendices A Tensors... 623 B Kramers Kronig Relations... 627 C Oscillator Strength... 629 D Quantum Statistics... 635

Contents XIX E Thek p Perturbation Theory... 639 F Effective-Mass Theory... 643 References... 645 Index... 669

Abbreviations 2DEG AAAS AB ac AFM AIP AM APD APD APS AR ASE AVS BC bcc BEC BGR CAS CCD CD CEO CIE CIS CL CMOS CMY COD CPU CRT CVD two-dimensional electron gas American Association for the Advancement of Science antibonding (position) alternating current atomic force microscopy American Institute of Physics air mass antiphase domain avalanche photodiode American Physical Society antireflection amplified spontaneous emission American Vacuum Society (The Science & Technology Society) bond center (position) body-centered cubic Bose Einstein condensation bandgap renormalization calorimetric absorption spectroscopy charge coupled device compact disc cleaved-edge overgrowth Commission Internationale de l Éclairage CuInSe 2 material cathodoluminescence complementary metal oxide semiconductor cyan-magenta-yellow (color system) catastrophical optical damage central processing unit cathode ray tube chemical vapor deposition

XXII cw CZ Abbreviations continuous wave Czochralski (growth) DAP DBR dc DFB DH(S) DLTS DMS DOS DPSS DRAM DVD EEPROM EHL EL ELO EMA EPROM ESF EXAFS fcc FeRAM FET FIR FKO FPA FQHE FWHM FZ GLAD GRINSCH GSMBE HBT hcp HCSEL HEMT HIGFET HJFET hh donor acceptor pair distributed Bragg reflector direct current distributed feedback double heterostructure deep level transient spectroscopy diluted magnetic semiconductor density of states diode-pumped solid-state (laser) dynamic random access memory digital versatile disc electrically erasable programmable read-only memory electron hole liquid electroluminescence epitaxial lateral overgrowth effective mass approximation erasable programmable read-only memory extrinsic stacking fault extended X-ray absorption fine structure face-centered cubic ferroelectric random access memory field-effect transistor far infrared Franz Keldysh oscillation focal plane array fractional quantum Hall effect full width at half-maximum float-zone (growth) glancing-angle deposition graded-index separate confinement heterostructure gas-source molecular beam epitaxy heterobipolar transistor hexagonally close packed horizontal cavity surface-emitting laser high electron mobility transistor heterojunction insulating gate FET heterojunction FET heavy hole

Abbreviations XXIII HOMO HR HRTEM HWHM IC IDB IF IPAP IQHE IR ISF ITO JDOS JFET KKR KTP LA LCD LDA LEC LED lh LO LPE LPCVD LPP LST LT LUMO LVM MBE MEMS MESFET MIGS MIOS MIR MIS MHEMT ML MMIC highest occupied molecular orbital high reflection high-resolution transmission electron microscopy half-width at half-maximum integrated circuit inversion domain boundary intermediate frequency Institute of Pure and Applied Physics, Tokyo integral quantum Hall effect infrared intrinsic stacking fault indium tin oxide joint density of states junction field-effect transistor Kramers Kronig relation KTiOPO 4 material longitudinal acoustic (phonon) liquid crystal display local density approximation liquid encapsulated Czochralski (growth) light-emitting diode light hole longitudinal optical (phonon), local oscillator liquid phase epitaxy low-pressure chemical vapor deposition longitudinal phonon plasmon (mode) Lyddane Sachs Teller (relation) low temperature lowest unoccupied molecular orbital local vibrational mode molecular beam epitaxy micro-electro-mechanical system metal semiconductor field-effect transistor midgap (surface) states metal insulator oxide semiconductor mid-infrared metal insulator semiconductor metamorphic HEMT monolayer millimeter-wave integrated circuit

XXIV Abbreviations MO MODFET MOMBE MOPA MOS MOSFET MOVPE MRS MS MSM MWQ NDR NEP NIR NMOS NTSC OPSL PA PBG pc PFM PHEMT PL PLD PLE PMMA PMOS PPC PPLN PV PWM PZT QCL QCSE QD QHE QW QWIP QWR master oscillator modulation-doped FET metal-organic molecular beam epitaxy master oscillator power amplifier metal oxide semiconductor metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor metal-organic chemical vapor deposition Material Research Society metal semiconductor (diode) metal semiconductor metal (diode) multiple quantum well negative differential resistance noise equivalent power near infrared n-channel metal oxide semiconductor (transistor) national television standard colors optically pumped semiconductor laser power amplifier photonic bandgap primitive cubic piezoresponse force microscopy pseudomorphic HEMT photoluminescence pulsed laser deposition photoluminescence excitation (spectroscopy) poly-methyl methacrylate p-channel metal oxide semiconductor (transistor) persistent photoconductivity perodically poled lithium niobate photovoltaic pulsewidth modulation PbTi x Zr 1 x O 3 material quantum cascade laser quantum confined Stark effect quantum dot quantum Hall effect quantum well quantum-well intersubband photodetector quantum wire

Abbreviations XXV RAM RAS REI RF RGB RHEED RKKY rms ROM SAGB SAM sc SCH SEL SEM SET SGDBR SHG si SIA SIMS SL s-o SOA SPD SPIE SPS srgb SRH SSR STM TA TCO TE TEGFET TEM TES TF TFT TM TO TOD TPA random access memory reflection anisotropy spectroscopy random element isodisplacement radio frequency red-green-blue (color system) reflection high-energy electron diffraction Ruderman Kittel Kasuya Yoshida (interaction) root mean square read-only memory small-angle grain boundary separate absorption and amplification (structure) simple cubic separate confinement heterostructure surface-emitting laser scanning electron microscopy single-electron transistor sampled grating distributed Bragg reflector second-harmonic generation semi-insulating Semiconductor Industry Association secondary ion mass spectroscopy superlattice spin-orbit (or split-off) semiconductor optical amplifier spectral power distribution International Society for Optical Engineering short-period superlattice standard RGB Shockley Read Hall (kinetics) side-mode suppression ratio scanning tunneling microscopy transverse acoustic (phonon) transparent conductive oxide transverse electric (polarization) two-dimensional electron gas FET transmission electron microscopy two-electron satellite thermionic field emission thin-film transistor transverse magnetic (polarization) transverse optical (phonon) turn-on delay (time) two-photon absorption

XXVI Abbreviations UHV UV ultrahigh vacuum ultraviolet VCA VCO VCSEL VFF VGF VIS VLSI WGM WKB WS XSTM virtual crystal approximation voltage-controlled oscillator vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser valence force field vertical gradient freeze (growth) visible very large scale integration whispering gallery mode Wentzel Kramer Brillouin (approximation or method) Wigner Seitz (cell) cross-sectional STM

Symbols α Madelung constant, disorder parameter, linewidth enhancement factor α(ω) absorption coefficient α m mirror loss α n electron ionization coefficient α p hole ionization coefficient β used as abbreviation for e/(k B T ), spontaneous emission coefficient γ, Γ broadening parameter γ 1, γ 2, γ 3 Luttinger parameter Δ 0 spin-orbit splitting ɛ(ω) dielectric function ɛ 0 permittivity of vacuum ɛ r relative dielectric function ɛ xy strain components η quantum efficiency η d differential quantum efficiency η w wall-plug efficiency Θ D Debye temperature κ imaginary part of index of refraction, heat conductivity λ wavelength μ mobility μ 0 magnetic susceptibility of vacuum μ h hole mobility μ n electron mobility ν frequency Π Peltier coefficient ρ mass density, charge density, resistivity σ standard deviation, conductivity σ n electron capture cross section σ p hole capture cross section σ P polarization charge σ xy stress components τ lifetime, time constant

XXVIII Symbols φ φ Bn χ χ(r) Ψ(r) ω Ω phase Schottky barrier height electron affinity, electric susceptibility envelope wavefunction wavefunction angular frequency interaction parameter a hydrostatic deformation potential a accelaration A area A, A vector potential A Richardson constant A effective Richardson constant a 0 (cubic) lattice constant b bowing parameter, deformation potential b Burger s vector B bimolecular recombination coefficient, bandwidth B, B magnetic field c velocity of light in vacuum, lattice constant (along c-axis) C capacity, spring constant C n, C p Auger recombination coefficient C ij elastic constants d distance, shear deformation potential D density of states, diffusion coefficient D, D displacement field D e (E) electron density of states D h (E) hole density of states D n electron diffusion coefficient D p hole diffusion coefficient e elementary charge E energy E, E, E electric field E A energy of acceptor level EA b acceptor ionization energy E C energy of conduction-band edge E D energy of donor level ED b donor ionization energy E F Fermi energy E Fn electron quasi-fermi energy E Fp hole quasi-fermi energy E g bandgap E P energy parameter E V energy of valence-band edge exciton energy E X

Symbols XXIX EX b exciton binding energy f oscillator strength F free energy F, F force F (M) excess noise factor f e Fermi Dirac distribution function f i ionicity F n electron quasi-fermi energy F p hole quasi-fermi energy g degeneracy, g-factor, gain G free enthalpy, generation rate G vector of reciprocal lattice g m transconductance h Planck constant H enthalpy H, H magnetic field H Hamiltonian h/(2π) i imaginary number I current I s saturation current j current density, orbital momentum j s saturation current density k, k B Boltzmann constant k wavevector k F Fermi wavevector l angular orbital momentum L length of line element L line vector (of dislocation) L D diffusion length L z quantum-well thickness m mass m effective mass M mass, multiplication factor M, M magnetization m e effective electron mass m h effective hole mass m j magnetic quantum number n electron concentration (in conduction band), ideality factor n normal vector N(E) number of states n complex index of refraction (= n r +iκ) N A acceptor concentration critical doping concentration N c

XXX Symbols N C N D n i n r n s N t n tr n thr N V conduction-band edge density of states donor concentration intrinsic electron concentration index of refraction (real part) sheet electron density trap concentration transparency electron concentration threshold electron concentration valence-band edge density of states p pressure, free hole density p, p momentum P power P, P electric polarization p cv momentum matrix element p i intrinsic hole concentration q charge q, q heat flow Q charge, quality factor r radius r spatial coordinate R resistance, radius, recombination rate R vector of direct lattice r H Hall factor R H Hall coefficient s spin S entropy, Seebeck coefficient, total spin S ij stiffness coefficients t time T temperature u displacement, cell-internal parameter u nk Bloch function U energy v, v velocity v s drift-saturation velocity V volume, voltage, potential V (λ) (standardized) sensitivity of human eye V a unit-cell volume v g group velocity v s velocity of sound v th thermal velocity w depletion-layer width W m work function X electronegativity Y Young s module, CIE brightness parameter Z partition sum, atomic order number

Physical Constants constant symbol numerical value unit speed of light in vacuum c 0 2.99792458 10 8 ms 1 permeability of vacuum μ 0 4π 10 7 NA 2 permittivity of vacuum ɛ 0 =(μ 0 c 2 0) 1 8.854187817 10 12 Fm 1 8.617385 10 5 ev K 1 elementary charge e 1.60217733 10 19 C electron mass m e 9.1093897 10 31 kg Planck constant h 6.6260755 10 34 Js = h/(2π) 1.05457266 10 34 Js 6.582122 10 16 ev s Boltzmann constant k B 1.380658 10 23 JK 1 von-klitzing constant R H 25812.8056 Ω Rydberg constant 13.6056981 ev Bohr radius a B 5.29177249 10 11 m