Contents 1 Preliminary on Watermarking Technology.... 1 1.1 Overview.... 1 1.2 Fundamentals of Digital Watermarking... 2 1.3 Requirements of Digital Watermarking.... 3 1.3.1 Robustness of Digital Watermarking.... 4 1.3.2 Capacity of Digital Watermarking.... 5 1.3.3 Imperceptibility of Digital Watermarking... 5 1.3.4 Tamper Resistance.... 7 1.3.5 Computational Cost.... 7 1.3.6 False Positive Rate.... 8 1.3.7 False Negative Rate.... 8 1.4 Zero Watermarking.... 8 1.5 Applications of Digital Watermarking... 9 1.6 Book Structure.... 11 References.... 13 Part I Signal Watermarking 2 Audio Watermarking.... 17 2.1 Introduction.... 17 2.2 Transmission Channel.... 17 2.3 Audio Watermarking Techniques... 19 2.3.1 Temporal Domain.... 20 2.3.2 Frequency Domain.... 22 2.3.3 Coded Domain.... 26 2.4 Embedding Approach.... 27 2.4.1 Embedding Before Encoding (Pre-encoding)... 28 2.4.2 Embedding During Encoding (in-encoder).... 28 2.4.3 Embedding After Encoding (Post-encoder).... 29 2.5 Audio Attacks.... 29 2.5.1 Dynamics.... 29 xi
xii Contents 2.5.2 Filter.... 30 2.5.3 Ambience.... 31 2.5.4 Conversion.... 31 2.5.5 Loss Compression... 31 2.5.6 Noise.... 31 2.5.7 Modulation.... 32 2.5.8 Time Stretch and Pitch Shift....................... 32 2.5.9 Sample Permutations.... 32 2.6 Comparison Among Different Audio Watermarking Methods... 36 References.... 36 3 Speech Watermarking.... 39 3.1 Introduction.... 39 3.2 Speech Versus Audio.... 40 3.3 Linear Predictive Analysis (LPA).... 40 3.4 Speech Watermarking Techniques.... 42 3.4.1 Speech Watermarking Based on Auditory Masking.... 42 3.4.2 Speech Watermarking Based on Phase Modulation.... 43 3.4.3 Speech Watermarking Based on Quantization.... 45 3.4.4 Speech Watermarking Based on Transformation.... 46 3.4.5 Speech Watermarking Based on Parametric Modeling.... 48 3.5 Attacks for Speech Watermarking.... 48 3.5.1 Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN).... 48 3.5.2 Low-Pass Filter (LPF)... 49 3.5.3 Band-Pass Filter (BPF).... 49 3.5.4 A-Law.... 49 3.5.5 µ-law.... 50 3.5.6 CELP... 50 3.5.7 Amplitude Variation.... 50 3.5.8 Resample... 50 3.5.9 Requantization.... 50 3.6 Challenges in Speech Watermarking.... 50 References.... 51 Part II Multimedia Watermarking 4 Image Watermarking........................................ 57 4.1 Introduction.... 57 4.2 Background.... 57 4.3 Image Watermarking Techniques... 58 4.3.1 Spatial Domain.... 58 4.3.2 Transform Domain.... 60 4.3.3 Multiple Domains.... 61 4.4 Image Attacks.... 62 4.5 Challenges in Image Watermarking... 64 4.6 Image Watermarking Based on Human Visual System.... 64
Contents xiii 4.7 Medical Image Watermarking.... 65 References.... 65 5 Video Watermarking.... 67 5.1 Introduction.... 67 5.2 Background of Video.... 67 5.3 Video Watermarking Techniques.... 69 5.3.1 Image-Based Video Watermarking.... 69 5.3.2 Video-Based Video Watermarking.... 72 5.4 Video Watermarking Attacks.... 73 5.4.1 Temporal Frame Averaging (TFA).... 74 5.4.2 Watermark Estimation Remodulation (WER).... 74 5.4.3 Watermark Estimations Clustering and Remodulation (WECR).... 74 5.4.4 Watermarking Subspace Estimation Draining (WSED)... 74 5.4.5 Block Replacement (BR).... 74 5.4.6 Block Combination... 75 5.4.7 Block Projection.... 75 5.4.8 Block Restoration.... 75 5.4.9 Block Swapping.... 76 5.5 Video-Enforced Strategies.... 76 5.5.1 SS System.... 76 5.5.2 SS-1 System.... 76 5.5.3 SS-N System... 77 5.5.4 SS-α System.... 77 5.5.5 Discussion... 77 5.6 Critical Review in Video Watermarking.... 78 References.... 79 6 Three-Dimensional (3D) Watermarking.... 81 6.1 Introduction.... 81 6.2 3D Modeling Representation............................. 82 6.3 Background of 3D Watermarking.... 83 6.4 Attacks in 3D Watermarking.... 85 6.5 Techniques in 3D Watermarking.... 86 6.5.1 Fragile 3D Watermarking.... 86 6.5.2 Robust 3D Watermarking.... 90 6.6 Distortion Evaluation in 3D Watermarking.... 95 References.... 96 Part III Document Watermarking 7 Natural Language Watermarking.... 103 7.1 Introduction.... 103 7.2 Background of Natural Language Processing.... 103 7.2.1 Data Resources.... 104 7.2.2 Linguistic Transformations... 104
xiv Contents 7.2.3 Natural Language Parsing... 106 7.2.4 Word Sense Disambiguation... 107 7.2.5 Statistical Language Models... 107 7.2.6 Natural Language Generation... 108 7.2.7 Natural Language Paraphrasing.... 108 7.3 Natural Language Watermarking.......................... 109 7.3.1 Requirements of NL Watermarking.... 109 7.3.2 Natural Language Watermarking Techniques... 113 7.4 NL Watermarking Versus Text Watermarking.... 117 References.... 118 8 Text Watermarking.... 121 8.1 Introduction.... 121 8.2 Background of Text Watermarking.... 121 8.3 Attacks in Text Watermarking.... 122 8.4 Text Watermarking Robustness.... 123 8.5 Text Watermarking Techniques.... 123 8.5.1 Image-Based Approach... 124 8.5.2 Syntactic Approach.............................. 124 8.5.3 Semantic Approach.............................. 126 8.5.4 Structural Approach.... 126 8.5.5 Hybrid Approach... 127 8.6 Discussion.... 127 8.7 Summary.... 128 References.... 128 9 Software Watermarking.... 131 9.1 Introduction.... 131 9.2 Background of Software Watermarking.... 131 9.3 Formal Representation of Software Watermarking.... 133 9.4 Software Watermarking Criteria.... 135 9.5 Software Watermarking Techniques.... 137 9.5.1 Basic Blocking Reordering Technique.... 138 9.5.2 Register Allocation Technique.... 138 9.5.3 Spread Spectrum Technique.... 138 9.5.4 Opaque Predicate Technique... 139 9.5.5 Threading Technique.... 139 9.5.6 Abstract Interpretation Technique... 139 9.5.7 Metamorphic Technique.... 139 9.5.8 Dynamic Path Technique.... 140 9.5.9 Mobile Agent Technique... 140 9.5.10 Graph-Based Technique.... 140 9.5.11 Birthmarks Technique... 141 9.6 Attacks in Software Watermarking.... 141 9.7 Discussion.... 142 References.... 143
Contents xv 10 Relational Database, XML, and Ontology Watermarking... 145 10.1 Introduction.... 145 10.2 Issues in Relational Database Watermarking... 146 10.3 Database Watermarking Attacks.... 147 10.4 Database Watermarking Techniques.... 148 10.4.1 Distortion-Based Watermarking.... 148 10.4.2 Distortion-Free Watermarking.... 150 10.5 Types of Digital Watermark... 152 10.5.1 Arbitrary Meaningless Bit Pattern.... 152 10.5.2 Image.... 153 10.5.3 Speech... 153 10.5.4 Content Characteristics........................... 153 10.5.5 Cloud Model.... 153 10.5.6 Meaningful Information.... 154 10.5.7 Fake Tuples.... 154 10.5.8 Virtual Attribute.... 154 10.6 Extension of Database Watermarking to XML Watermarking... 154 10.7 Preliminary in XML Data.... 155 10.8 XML Watermarking... 155 10.8.1 Query-Based XML Watermarking.... 156 10.8.2 Fuzzy Queries XML Watermarking.... 157 10.9 XML Watermarking Attacks.... 157 10.10 Extension of Database Watermarking to Ontology Watermarking... 159 10.11 Ontology Watermarking... 159 References.... 160 Part IV Advance in Watermarking 11 Network Stream Watermarking.... 165 11.1 Introduction.... 165 11.2 Network Traffic Modeling.... 166 11.3 Network Watermark Properties.... 166 11.4 Network Watermarking Techniques... 168 11.4.1 Network Flow Watermarking.... 168 11.4.2 Watermarks in Anonymous Systems.... 169 11.4.3 Watermarks in Stepping Stones.... 170 11.4.4 Interval Centroid-Based Watermarking.... 170 11.4.5 Interval-Based Watermarking.... 171 11.4.6 Spread-Spectrum Watermarking.................... 172 11.5 Network Watermarking Attacks... 173 11.5.1 Active Attack.... 173 11.5.2 Copy Attack.... 173 11.5.3 Ambiguity Attacks.... 173 11.5.4 Packet Modification Attack... 174
xvi Contents 11.6 Watermarking Strategy.... 174 11.6.1 Single-Message Watermarks... 174 11.6.2 Multi-message Watermarks... 174 11.6.3 Multiple Messages.... 174 11.7 Types of Adversaries.... 175 11.7.1 Invisibility with Isolated Adversaries.... 176 11.7.2 Invisibility with Chosen Flow Adversaries... 177 References.... 178 12 Hardware IP Watermarking.... 181 12.1 Introduction.... 181 12.2 Background of SOC Design Flow.... 182 12.3 Reusable and Deliverable IP Blocks.... 183 12.4 Hardware IP Watermarking Techniques.... 184 12.4.1 Dynamic IP Watermarking Technique.... 184 12.4.2 Static IP Watermarking Technique.... 186 12.4.3 Hierarchical IP Watermarking Technique... 187 12.5 Attack on IP Watermarking.... 187 12.6 Criterion in IP Watermarking... 187 12.7 Discussion.... 188 References.... 189 13 Security Enhancement of Digital Watermarking.... 191 13.1 Introduction.... 191 13.2 Digital Watermarking Application Scenarios for Online Biometric Recognition Systems... 191 13.2.1 Stenographic (Covert) Communication.... 192 13.2.2 Multi-biometric Recognition.... 193 13.2.3 Multi-factor Authentication (MFA).... 193 13.2.4 Sample Replay Prevention.... 193 13.2.5 Sample Authentication.... 194 13.3 Biometric Watermarking.... 194 13.4 Quantum Watermarking... 195 13.5 DNA Watermarking.... 198 13.6 Application of Watermarking in Financial Systems.... 199 13.7 Robustness Versus Security.... 199 References.... 201
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