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01 an introduction to ancient greek language: we shall attempt to introduce this language in an oversimplified manner. in this introductory coverage, we shall attempt to make a comparison with modern greek and/or latin, whenever feasible. Nouns: in gender they have 3 which are masculine, feminine and neuter (similar to modern greek and latin). in number, they have 3 which are singular plural and dual (modern greek and latin do not have the dual, but arabic has it). nouns declined similar to latin and have 3 different groups (while latin has five and modern greek nouns are first divided into masculine, feminine and neuter before being declined). with regards to verbs, the have 3 singular persons, 3 plural and 2 dual (as mentioned before this dual issue does not exist neither in latin nor modern greek). 02 an introduction to ancient greek language: Th ancient greek alphabet has 24 letters of which there are seven vowels, vowels can be short or long, open or close. vowels and diphthongs can be hard or soft (breathing) when they fall in the beginning of the word. there are 8 diphthongs and 3 imperfect diphthongs. there are 3 classes of consonants which are mutes (silent consonants) i.e. cannot be pronounced without a vowel, semivowels which can be pronounced without a vowel and double consonants. there are 3 accents (in modern greek there is only one, while in french there are the same three accents). they were invented by grammarians at about 200 BC. fyi: modern greek debut was in the eleventh century. 03 an introduction to ancient greek language: το ελληνικό αλφάβητο: α (short as in mat or long as in hate), β (b), γ (hard as in get), δ (d), ε (always short as in met), ζ (z), η (always long as the first e in here), θ (th), ι (short as in sit or long as in bite), κ (k), λ (l), μ (m), ν (n), ξ (x, pronounced xi), ο, (short as in spot) π (p), ρ (r), σ (s) ή ς (at the end od the word), τ (t), υ (generally long as in tune, sometimes short as in hut), φ ((pf), χ (kh), ψ (ps), ω (long as in tone). Α, ε, η, ο and ω are called open vowels while ι and υ are closed vowels. the 8 diphthongs (δίφθογγοι - double sounding) are: αι (like ai in aisle), αυ (au in taught), ει (ei in height), ευ (eu in feudal), οι (oi in oil), ου (ou in sound), ηυ (eu in feudal), υι (wi in wine), which are formed by a combination of an open vowel with a closed one with 1 exception which is the last one. the 3 imperfect (improper) diphthongs are formed by union of α, η, ω with ι that is written beneath the vowel and is called Iota subscript. the pronounciation of ancien greek diphthongs differs than the modern greek ones. the modern greek diphthongs are: ει, οι, αι, ου. 04 an introduction to ancient greek language: Consonants: the double consonts are: ξ (κ + σ), ψ (π + σ) & ζ (δ + σ). the simple consonants can be divided into labials (π, β, φ, μ), palatals (κ, λ, χ) and linguals (τ, δ, θ, σ, λ, ν & ρ). by another classification, they are divided into semivowels and mutes. the semivowels are λ, μ, ν, ρ, σ. nasal γ they are subclassified into liquids (λ, μ, ν, ρ), nasals (μ, ν, nasal γ) and spirant (σ). the mutes are of 3 orders: smooth (π, κ, τ), middld mute (β, γ, δ) and rough mute (φ, χ, θ). they also correspond to the following classes: labial mutes (π, β, φ), palatal mutes (κ, γ, χ), lingual mutes(τ, δ, θ).

fyi: the ionic greek alphabet was first introduced officialy in Athens in 403 BC. the only consonants which can end a greek word are: ν, ρ, ς, if others are left at the end of a word, they are dropped. 05 an introduction to ancient greek language: Euphony of vowels: a succession of 2 vowels (not forming a diphthong) apparently was in general displeasing to the Athenians. collision of vowels was avoided through the following techniques: contraction (when it happens in the middle of a word) and when it happens between 2 words (hiatus), it was avoided by any of the following: crasis, elision, aphaeresis or adding a movable consonant to the former word. crasis means mixture, when a vowel or diphthong appears at the end of the word, it may be contracted with the one at the beginning of the following word. elision is the action of dropping a final vowel i a word when the next word begins with a vowel. an apostrophe marks the omission. aphaeresis which means taking off happens when a short vowel at the beginning of the word is dropped after a long vowel or a diphthong at the end of the preceding word.. movable consonants. example for a movable cobsonant is ν, generally it is added to the word ending in a vowel (example ε) when the next word begins with a vowel. 06 an introduction to ancient greek language: indefinite article declension: in ancient greek, the definite article has gender (masc., fem. & neuter), has number (sing., dual & plural) and has case for each gender/number combination (nominative, accusative, genitive & dative). 1) nominative case: 1-1) singular: ο, η (aspired,rough breathing), τό 1-2) plural: οι, αι, τά. 1-3) dual: τώ, τώ, τώ. 2) accusative case: 2-1) τόν, τήν, τό. 2-2) τούς, τάς, τά 2-3) τώ, τώ, τώ. 3) genitive case: 3-1) του, της, του (the υ & η have the circumflex accent) 3-2) των, των, των (the ω has the circumflex accent). 3-3) τοιν, τοιν, τοιν (the i has the circumflex accent). 4) dative case: 4-1) τω, τη, τω (the ω & η have the circumflex accent and the iota subscript beneath the character). 4-2) τοις, ταις, τοις (the ι has the circumflex accent). 4-3) τοιν, τοιν, τοιν (the ι has the circumflex accent). In modern greek: οδιστικό άρθρο/definite article ο, η, το, οι, οι, τα το (ν), τη (ν), το, τους, τις, τα του, της, του, των αόριστο άρθρο/indefinite article ένας, μια, ένα

ένα (ν), μια, ένα ενός, μιας, ενός nouns' declension: when it comes to the declension of nouns, nouns are divided into 3 groups, stem ending in a, stems ending in o and stems ending in one of the following: consonant, vowels (ι, υ, ο, ω) or diphthongs (αυ, ευ, ου). on the other hand, the latin nouns are divided into 5 groups: a-declension, o-declension, consonant declension, u-declension and e-declension. 07 an introduction to ancient greek language: a-declension: are either feminines or masculines: examples: for feminine nouns: stem: χωρα, φιλια, γλωσσα, τιμα. nom: sing /plural/dual: χώρα/χωραι/χώρα, φιλία/φιλιαι/φιλία, γλωσσα/γλωσσαι/γλωσσα, τιμή/τιμαί/τιμα. acc: χώραν/χώρας/χώρα, φιλίαν/φιλίας/φιλία, γλωσσαν/γλωσσας/γλώσσα, τιμήν/τιμας/τιμα. gen: χώρας/χωρων/χώραιν, φιλίας/φιλιων/φιλίαιν, γλώσσης/γλωσσων/γλώσσαιν, τιμης/τιμων/τιμαιν dat: χώρα/χώραις/χώραιν, φιλία/φιλίαις/φιλίαιν, γλώσση/γλώσσαις/γλώσσαιν, τιμη/τιμαις. voc: χώρα/χώραι/χώρα, φιλία/φίλιαι/φιλία, γλωσσα/γλωσσαι/γλώσσα, τιμή/τιμαί/τιμα for masc. nouns: nom.: νεανίας/νεανίαι/νεανία, πολίτης/πολιται/πολιτα. acc.: νεανίαν/νεανίας/νεανία, πολίτην/πολίτας/πολίτα. gen.: νεανίου/νεανιων/νεανίαιν, πολίτου/πολιτων/πολίταιν. dat.: νεανία/νεανίαις/νεανίαιν, πολίτη/πολιταις/πολίταιν. voc.: νεανία/νεανίαι/νεανία, πολιτα/πολιται/πολίτα. Note: not all signs are shown, like accents, breathing or iota-subscript, as the modern greek keyboard lack such signs. in modern greek, the endings are function of the noun in the nominative singular. example endings are α, η (fem) και ας, ης (masc.). α, ες nominative, sing.: ταβέρνα nominative, plural: ταβέρνες accusative, sing.: ταβέρνα accusative, plural: ταβέρνες genitive, sing.: ταβέρνας genitive, plural: ταβερνών vocative, sing: ταβέρνα vocative, plural: ταβέρνες η, ες nominative, sing.: ψυχή nominative, plural: ψυχές

accusative, sing.: ψυχή accusative, plural: ψυχές genitive, sing.: ψυχής genitive, plural: ψυχών vocative, sing: ψυχή vocative, plural: ψυχές ας, ες nominative, sing.: ο αναπτήρας nominative, plural: οι αναπτήρες accusative, sing.: τον αναπτήρα accusative, plural: τους αναπτήρες genitive, sing.: του αναπτήρα genitive, plural: των αναπτήρων vocative, sing: απαπτήρα, vocative, plural: αναπτήρες ης, ες nominative, sing.: υπολογιστής nominative, plural: υπολογιστές accusative, sing.:υπολογιστή accusative, plural: υπολογιστές genitive, sing.: υπολογιστή genitive, plural: υπολογιστών vocative, sing.: υπολογιστή vocative, plural: υπολογιστές in latin the a-declension nouns are feminine with few exceptions, there are some similarity in the endings' sounds with ancient greek. 08 an introduction to ancient greek language: the second declension or the o-declension: these nouns could be masculine or neuter with few feminine ones. the masculine nouns could be equivalent to those ending in ος in the nominative singular in modern greek. a few feminine nouns in modern greek (like οδός) also come from this group. in modern greek, the neuter nouns ending in o also were originated from this group, for example δώρο, νόσος. for masculine nouns: nom.: ανθδωπος/ανθρωποι/ανθρώπω. acc: ανθρωπον/ανθρώπους/ανθρώπω. gen: ανθρώπου/ανθρώπων/ανθρώποιν. dat: ανθρώπω/ανθρώποις/ανθρώποιν voc: ανθρωπε/ανθρωποι/ανθρώπω. for neuter nouns: nom: δωρον/δωρα/δώρω.

acc: δωρον/δωρα/δώρω. gen: δώρου/δώρων/δώροιν. dat: δώρω/δώροις/δώροιν. voc: δωρον/δωρα/δώρω. note: we are not going to cover the attic second declension here. 09 an introduction to ancient greek language: the stem of the third declension nouns may end in consonants, vowels or diphthongs. the nouns could be masculine, feminine or neuter. the neuter nouns' stems may end in a consonant or in υ. the masculine and feminine nouns may end in any of the guttural or labial mutes (κ, γ, χ, π, β φ), dental mutes (τ, δ θ), αντ, οντ, liquid (λ,ρ), nasal ν, σ, vowels (ι, υ), diphthongs (ευ, αυ, ου), vowels (ο, ω). examples: 1) stems in κ, γ, χ, π, β, φ: (φυλακ, μαστιγ, ονυχ, φλεβ: nom: ο/η φύλαξ/φύλακες/δύλακε, η μάστιξ/μάστιγες/μάστιγε, ο ονυξ/ονυχες/ονυχε, η φλέψ/φλέβες/φλέβε. acc: φύλακα/φύλακας/φύλακε, μάστιγα/μάστιγας/μάστιγε, ονυχα/ονυχας/ονυχε, φλέβα/φλέβας/φλέβε. gen: φύλακος/φυλάκων/φυλάλοιν, μάστιγος/μαστίγων/μαστίγοιν, ονυχος/ονύχων/ονύχοιν, φλεβός/φλεβων/φλεβοιν dat: φύλακι/φύλαξιν/φυλάκοιν, μάστιγι/μάστιξιν/μαστίγοιν, ονυχι/ονυξιν/ονύχοιν, φλεβί/φλεψίν/φλεβοιν. voc: same as nominative. 2) stems ending on τ, δ θ: λαμπαδ, εριδ, πατριδ: nom: η λαμπάς/λαμπάδες/λαμπάδε, η ερις/εριδες/εριδε, η πατρίς/πατρίδες/πατρίδε. acc: λαμπάδα/λαμπάδας/λαμπάδε, εριν/εριδας/εριδε, πατρίδα/πατρίδας/πατρίδε. gen: λαμπάδος/λαμπάδων/λαμπάδοιν, εριδος/ερίδων/ερίδοιν, πατρίδος/πατρίδων/πατρίδοιν. dat: λαμπάδι/λαμπάσιν/λαμπάδοιν, εριδι/ερισιν/ερίδοιν, πατρίδι/πατρίσιν/πατρίδοιν. voc: same as nominative case. 3) stems which end in αντ, οντ. γιγαντ, οδονυ, λροντ. nom: ο γίγας/γίγαντες/γίγαντε, ο οδούς/οδόντες/οδόντε, ο λέων/λέοντες/λέοντε. acc: γίγαντα/γίγαντας/γίγαντε, οδόντα/οδόντας/οδόντε, λέοντα/λέοντας/λέοντε. gen: γίγαντος/γιγάντων/γιγάντοιν, οδόντος/οδόντων/οδόντοιν, λέοντος/λεόντων/λεόντοιν. dat: γίγαντι/γίγασιν/γιγάντοιν, οδόντι/οδουσιν/οδόντοιν, λέοντι/λέουσιν/λεόντοιν voc: same as nominative case with one exception with certain nouns, eg. λέων & λέον. 4) stems which end in λ, ρ (liquids): stems are: αλ, θηρ, ρητορ, μητερ. nom: ο αλς/αλες/αλε, ο θήρ/θήρες/θηρε, ο ρήτορ/ρήτορεσ/ρήτορε, η μήτηρ/μητέρες/μητέρρ acc: αλα/αλας/αλε, θηρα/θηρας/θηρε, ρήτορα/ρήτορας/ρήτορε, μητέρα/μητέρας/μητέρε. gen: αλός/αλων/αλοιν, θηρος/θηρων/θηροιν, ρήτορος/ρητόρων/ρητόροιν, μητρός/μητέρων/μητέροιν. dat: αλί/αλσίν/αλοιν, θηρί/θηρσίν/θηροιν, ρήτορι/ρήτορσιν/ρητόροιν, μητρί/μητρασιν/μητέροιν.

voc: same as nom with few exceptions, with ρ stem, when ρ is preceded by a short vowel and the word is not accented on the last syllable, the voc. case does not change it, eg. μητερ: μήτηρ/μητερ, when the last syllable is accented, the acc is the same as nom (with few exceptions,. πατήρ πατέρ, 5) stems which end in nasal ν: stems are: Έλλην, ηγεμον, δελφιν. nom: ο Έλλην/Έλληνες/Έλληνε, ο ηγεμών/ηγεμόνες/ηγεμόνε, ο δελφίς/δελφινες/δελφινε. acc: Έλληνα/Έλληνας/Έλληνε, ηγεμόνα/ηγεμόνας/ηγεμόνε, δελφινα/δελφινας/δελφινε. gen: Έλληνος/Έλλήνων/Ελλήνοιν, ηγεμόνος/ηγεμόνων/ηγεμόνοιν, δελφινος/δελφίνων/δελφίνοιν. dat: Έλληνι/Έλλησιν/Ελλήνοιν, ηγεμόνι/ηγεμόσιν/ηγεμόνοιν, δελφινι/δελφισιν/δελφίνοιν. voc: the same like the nom. 6) stems which end in vowels υ, ι: πολι, συ, πηζυ nom: η πόλις/πόλεις/πόλει, ο/η συς//συες/συε, ο πηχυς/πήχεις/πήχει. acc: πόλιν/πόλεις/πόλει, συν/συς/συε, πηχυν/πήχεις/πήχει. gen: πόλεως/πόλεων/πολέοιν, συός/συων/συοιν, πήχεως/πήχεων. dat: πόλει/πόλεσιν/πολέοιν, συί/συσίν/συσοιν, πήχει/πήχεσιν. voc: it similar to the nominative case except for the sing.: πόλι, συ, πηχυ. 7) stems which end in diphthongs (ευ, αυ, ου): βασιλευ, γραυ, βου nom: ο βασιλευς/βασιλς/βασιλη, η γραυς/γραες/γραε, ο/η βους/βοές/βόε. acc: βασιλέα/βασιλέας/βασιλη, γραυν, γραυς, γραε, βουν/βους/βόε. gen: βασιλέως/βασιλέων/βασιλέοιν, γραός/γραων/γραοιν, βοός/βοων/βοοιν. dat: βασιλει/βασιλευσιν/βασιλέοιν, γραί/γραυσιν/γραοιν, βοί/βουσιν/βοοιν. voc: βασιλευ, γραυ, βου, for thd plural and the dual, they are identical to the nominative case. 8) stems which end in vowels ο, ω: πειθο, ήρω nom: η πειθώ, ο ηρως/ηρωες/ηρωε acc: πειθώ, ηρω (ηρωα)/ηρως (ηρωας)/ηρωε. gen: πειθους, ηρωος/ηρώων/ηφώοιν dat: πειθοι, ηρωι (ηρω)/ηρωσιν/ηρώοιν. voc: same like above only the singular is different: πειθοι. 9) stems which end in σ: Δημοσθενες, Ηρακλης, τριήρης. nom: ο Δημοσθένης, ο Ηρακλης, η τριήρης/τριήρρις/τδιήρει. acc: Δημοσθένη, Ηρακλέα, τριήρι/τριήρεις/τριήρει. gen: Δημοσθένους, Ηρακλέους, τριήρους/τριήρων/τριηροιν. dat: Δημοσθένει, Ηρακλει, τριήρει/τριήρεσιντρηροιν. voc: τριηρες for voc. Sing. Neuter nouns: examples: 1) stems which end in a consonant. the stems are: σωματ, τερατ, κρεας, γενες. nom: το σωμα/σώματα/σώματε, το τέρας/τέρατα/τέρατε, το κρεας/κρεα, το γένος/γένη/γένει acc: σωμα/σώματα/σώματε, τέρας/τέρατα/τέρατε, κρέας/κρέα, γένος/γένη/γένει. gen: σώματος/σωμάτων/σωμάτοιν, τέρατοε/τεράτων/τεράτοιν, κρέως/κρεων, γενους/γενων/γενοιν dat: σώματι/σώμασιν/αωμάτοιν, τέρατι/τέρασιν/τεράτοιν, κρέα/κρέασιν, γένει/γένεσιν/γενοιν. voc: same as nom. case.

2) stem which end in υ. αστυ nom: το αστυ/αστη/αστει acc: αστυ/αστη/αστει gen: αστεως/αστέων/αστέοιν dat: αστει/αστεσιν/αστέοιν voc: same as nom. case. 10 an introduction to ancient greek language: A brief introduction to Greek verb system: the verb system: ancient greek verb system is rather complicated. there are 3 voices, the active, passive and middle (the subject performs an action upon itself herself, himself). the passive differs from the middle in form in only two tenses, the future and the aorist. there are 4 moods which are the indicative, subjunctive, optative and imperative. there are 3 numbers (like nouns, singular, plural and dual). in general there are 3 persons in each number. in each tense of the imperative mood, there are 2 persons in each number. in general, the first person dual is the same as the first person plural. the tense systems are as follows: present (including present and imperfect), future (including future active and middle), first aorist (including first aorist active and middle), second aorist (including second aorist active and middle), first perfect (including first perfect & pluperfect active), second perfect (including second perfect & pluperfect active), perfect middle (including perfect & pluperfect middle and future perfect), first passive (including first aorist & future passive), second passive (including second aorist & future passive). there are seven tenses: present, imperfect, future, aorist, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect. the imperfect and pluperfect are found only inthe indicative. the subjunctive and imperative do not have the future and future perfect. tenses are divided into principal (primary) and historical (secondary), the former includes the present, perfect, future, future perfect in the indicative mood and the latter has the imperfect, pluperfect, aorist in the indicative mood. the principal parts of a greek verb are the first person singular of the present, future, first aorost, and first or second perfect in the indicative mood, active mood; the perfect middle and the first or second aorist passive plus the second aorist active or middle, if available. with deponent verbs, the principal parts are the present, future, perfect and aorist indicative. there are 2 principal forms of conjugation of grreek verbs, that of verbs in ω and that in μι. a short word about modern greek verbs: verbs can be classified in either of these 2 approaches: first approach: there 5 groups of verbs, a, b1, b2, c1 & c2. the first 3 are in the active voice (in which the first person singular in the present ends in ω ή ώ) and the latter 2 are in the medio passive or passive voice (first person singular in the present end in μαι). second approach: there are 3 verbs groups, a, b1 and b2. most verbs in the previously mentioned groups have an active voice and their corresponding passive voice. for every rule there exceptions, certain verbs only have active voice, others have only medio passive or passive voice only of which some of them infer an active meaning/sense (deponent verbs). six sets of personal endings are used to form the different forms in Greek languge: ω εις, ει, ουμε, ετε, ουν(ε). ώ, είς, εί, ούμε, είτε, ούν(ε). άω/ώ, άς, άει/ά, άμε (ούμε), άτε, άνε /ούν. α, ες, ε, αμε, ατε, αν(ε). μαι, σαι, ται, μαστε, στε/σαστε, νται. μουν(α), σουν(α), ταν(ε), μασταν/μαστε, σασταν/σαστε, νταν/ντογσαν.

the first 3 sets serve a variety of formations, beside they are used to distinguish the 3 verb groups in the active voice, present indicative mood. they are used for future active forms (future imperfective and perfective which sometimes called simple future) as well as future perfective medio passive voice. the fourth set of endings appears in past forms (active imperfective and perfective as well as medio passive past perfective). the fifth and sixth endings are found only in medio passive forms. the fifth are found in c1 & c2 verbs, medio-passive in the prent indicative mood and the sixth is used exclusively for past imperfective medio-passive forms.

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