!"#ά%&'( 11 )& *+,&%"ί&, (' *.'./ώ1"'2 3&' (' 4"15(ί /62 7'"89(ύ2 *5.(+'3ή2 <(%'/'3ή2

Transcript

1 G'ώ+,(2 H%(,(13(ύ#62,!"#$%ή' (")*%*+")ή )," -,.)ό0+", (")*%*+ί,!"#ά%&'( 11 )& *+,&%"ί&, (' *.'./ώ1"'2 3&' (' 4"15(ί /62 7'"89(ύ2 *5.(+'3ή2 <(%'/'3ή2 =/( 3"#ά%&'( &>/ό &9&%ύ(>5" "+,&%"ί&, /'2 ".'./ώ1"'2 3&' /(>2 8"15(ύ2 /62 A'"89(ύ2 "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2. "+,&%"ί& /62 A'"89(ύ2 "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2 "ί9&' (' "'1&,B,'3(ί A&15(ί, (' ".'A(/ή1"'2 /B9 "C&,B,ώ9, ('.(1(1/ώ1"'2 /B9 "'1&,B,ώ9, (' "8"%(ύ1'(' "C&,B,'3(ί."+'(+'15(ί, (' 3&9ό9"2 ",DB+ί(>."+'"D(5έ9(> 1/'2 "'1&,B,έ2, /& "89'3ά 1>1/ή5&/& A65(1ίB9.+(568"'ώ9 3&' A'ά#(+&,+&#"'(3+&/'3ά "5.όA'&. A'"89"ί2 8"15(ί 1>9/(9'15(ύ /62 "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2 3&/ά /'2 /"%">/&ί"2 A"3&"/ί"2 ή/&9 6 G"9'3ή =>5#B9ί&,'& /(>2 7&15(ύ2 3&' /( *5.ό+'( (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, GATT), 3&' 6 5"/"Cέ%'Cή /62, ( <&,3ό15'(2 F+,&9'15ό2 *5.(+ί(> (<F*, ή WTO &.ό /( World Trade Organisation). *.ί162, 165&9/'3(ί A'"89"ί2 8"15(ί "ί9&' 3&' (' A'5"+"ί2 3&8ώ2 3&' ('."+'#"+"'&3έ2 1>5#B9ί"2 ό.b2 ('."+'(Dέ2 "%">8έ+(> "5.(+ί(> 3&' (' /"%B9"'&3έ2 "9ώ1"'2. H.ό /69 &9ά%>16 /(> 3"#&%&ί(> &>/(ύ 3&/&%ή,(>5" 1" 1>5."+ά15&/& 1D"/'3ά 5" /( +ό%( /B9 "+,&%"ίb9 3&' /B9 8"15ώ9 /62 A'"89(ύ2 "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2, 3&8ώ2 3&','& /6 165&1ί& /(> "%"ύ8"+(> "5.(+ί(>,'& /69.&,3ό15'& ('3(9(5ί&. F' "'1&,B,'3(ί A&15(ί '1/(+'3ά >.ή+c&9 /( 3>+'ό/"+( "+,&%"ί( "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2, %ό,b 3&' /(>,",(9ό/(2 ό/' 1>5@ά%%(>9 1/& A65ό1'& έ1(a&. Έ9&2 "'1&,B,'3ό2 A&15ό2 &>Cά9"' /69 /'5ή /B9 "'1&,(5έ9B9, 5" &.(/έ%"15& /69 &ύc616 /62 ",Dώ+'&2.+(1#(+ά2 3&' 5"ίB16 /62 ",Dώ+'&2 Kή/6162, 5" &.(/έ%"15& 9&."+'(+ίK"/&' ( ό,3(2 /B9 "'1&,B,ώ9. Έ9&2 "'1&,B,'3ό2 A&15ό2 B#"%"ί /(>2.&+&,B,(ύ2 /B9 "'1&,(5έ9B9 3&' 8ί,"' /(>2 3&/&9&%B/έ2 /B9 "'1&,(5έ9B9, 3&' 1>5@ά%%"' 1/& A65ό1'& έ1(a&. G'& 5ί& 5'3+ή ('3(9(5ί&, 6 (.(ί& A"9 5.(+"ί 9& ".6+"ά1"' /(>2 ό+(>2 "5.(+ί(> /62, /( 1>9ό%'3( 3('9B9'3ό &.(/έ%"15& &.ό /69 ".'@(%ή A&15ώ9 "ί9&' &+96/'3ό, 3&8ώ2 (' A&15(ί.+(3&%(ύ9 ",Dώ+'"2 1/+"@%ώ1"'2 1/69.&+&,B,ή 3&' /69 3&/&9ά%B16, (' (.(ί"2 5"'ώ9(>9 /69 3('9B9'3ή ">65"+ί&. )& (#έ%6 /B9 ",Dώ+'B9.&+&,B,ώ9 "'1&,(5έ9B9.+(Lό9/B9 3&8ώ2 3&' /& ".'.%έ(9 A65ό1'& έ1(a& A"9 ".&+3(ύ9,'& 9& 3&%ύM(>9 /'2 &.ώ%"'"2 /B9 3&/&9&%B/ώ9. N ".'@(%ή "9ό2 "'1&,B,'3(ύ A&15(ύ &.ό 5ί& 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί& (A6,"ί /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /62 3&' έ/1' 5"'ώ9"' /6 A'"89ή /'5ή /B9 "'1&,(5έ9B9 /62. G'& /6

2 Dώ+&.(> /( A&15ό, /( ό#"%(2 &.ό /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> 5"/+'άK"' /( 3ό1/(2 /B9 ",Dώ+'B9 A65'(>+,(ύ9/&', 3&' "9A"D(5έ9B2 ( "'1&,B,'3ό2 A&15ό2 9& "ί9&' 1>9(%'3ά ".B#"%ή2,'& /6 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί&.(> /(9 ".'@ά%%"'. O1/ό1(, 6 ".'@(%ή "9ό2 "'1&,B,'3(ύ A&15(ύ 8ί,"' /(9 >.ό%('.( 3ό15(, 3&8ώ2 (A6,"ί 1" D"'+(/έ+">16 /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /(> >.(%(ί.(> 3ό15(>, 3&' 5.(+"ί 9& (A6,ή1"' 1" &9/'1/&85'1/'3ή &ύc616 /B9 "'1&,B,'3ώ9 A&15ώ9 3&' 1/(9 >.ό%('.( 3ό15(. H9/ί1/('D"2 1/+"@%ώ1"'2, 3&' 5ά%'1/& 5",&%ύ/"+"2.+(3&%(ύ9 3&' (' "C&,B,'3έ2 ".'A(/ή1"'2, (' (.(ί"2 A"9 έd(>9 3&9 /(.%"(9έ3/65& /62.+(1.ό+'162 A65(1ίB9 "1όAB9, ή /(.%"(9έ3/65& /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(>,'& 5ί& 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί&. F' "C&,B,'3έ2 ".'A(/ή1"'2.+(3&%(ύ9 ".'.%έ(9 A65ό1'"2 A&.ά9"2 3&',,'& /69."+ί./B16 5'&2 5",ά%62 ('3(9(5ί&2, (A6,(ύ9 3&' 1" ".'A"ί9B16 /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(>. H+96/'3έ2 ".'./ώ1"'2 3&' 1/+"@%ώ1"'2 A65'(>+,(ύ9 3&' ('.(1(1/ώ1"'2 /B9 "'1&,B,ώ9, (' "8"%(ύ1'('."+'(+'15(ί /B9 "C&,B,ώ9 3&' ά%%& "+,&%"ί& /62 "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2. G'& /(>2 %ό,(>2 &>/(ύ2, ('."+'11ό/"+(' ('3(9(5(%ό,(' 8"B+(ύ9 ό/' /( "%"ύ8"+( "5.ό+'(.+(3&%"ί 165&9/'3ά (#έ%6,'& ό%"2 /'2 Dώ+"2, %ό,b /62 &ύc6162 /62 &.(/"%"15&/'3ό/6/&2 /62.&,3ό15'&2 ('3(9(5ί&2. )& "+,&%"ί& /62 "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2.+έ."' 9& D+61'5(.('(ύ9/&' 5" 5",ά%6 #"'Aώ, %ό,b /B9 1/+"@%ώ1"B9.(>.+(3&%(ύ9. G'&.&+άA"',5&, 5ί& 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί& 5.(+"ί 9& B#"%68"ί &.ό A&15(ύ2 3&' "C&,B,'3(ύ2 #ό+(>2, %ό,b /B9 ">5"9ώ9 ".'./ώ1"b9 /(>2 1/(>2 ό+(>2 "5.(+ί(>. O1/ό1(, 3'9A>9"ύ"' &.ό &9/'1/&85'1/'3ά 5έ/+& &.ό /(>2 &9/&,B9'1/έ2 /(>2, 5" &.(/έ%"15& 5"ίB16 /62 ">65"+ί&2,'& ό%(>2 (2ί34++, 563,)"0+έ%8%). O1/ό1(, 1" /"%'3ή &9ά%>16, 6 "5.(+'3ή.(%'/'3ή 1/'2 A'ά#(+"2 Dώ+"2 3&8(+ίK"/&' &.ό.&+ά,(9/"2.(> 1D"/ίK(9/&' 5" /6 A'&9(5ή /(> "'1(Aή5&/(2. <(%%έ2 #(+έ2,.&+ά /6 5"ίB16 /62 1>9(%'3ή2 ">65"+ί&2.(>.+(3&%(ύ9, >'(8"/(ύ9/&'.(%'/'3έ2 5" 1/όD( /6 1/ή+'C6 1>,3"3+'5έ9B9 3('9B9'3ώ9 (5άAB9, &3ό56 3&' &9 &>/έ2 ('.(%'/'3έ2 %"'/(>+,(ύ9 /62 1>9(%'3ή2 "89'3ή2 ">65"+ί&2. Έ9& /έ/('(.&+άa"',5& "ί9&' 6!('9ή H,+(/'3ή <(%'/'3ή /62 *>+B.&L3ή2 Έ9B162, &%%ά 3&' ά%%"2.(%'/'3έ2.+(1/&/">/'15(ύ.&,3(15ίb2. P"/ά /( 1945, 6 &."%">8έ+B16 /(> "5.(+ί(>.+(Dώ+61" 5ό9( 5έ1B A'"89ώ9 8"15ώ9 3&' 1>9"+,&1'ώ9 (GATT 3&' <F*),.(> &9/'5"/B.ίK(>9 /(.+ό@%65& 1>9/(9'15(ύ.(> &9&3ύ./"' 1" έ9& Kή/65& ό.(> ('.+B/(@(>%ί"2 5'&2 Dώ+&2 ".6+"άK(>9 /69 ">65"+ί& /B9 ά%%b9. *.ί &9/'3ό +ό%(.&ίk(>9 ('."+'(Dέ2 "%">8έ+(> "5.(+ί(> (European Free Trade Area, EFTA, North American Free Trade Area, NAFTA) 3&' (' /"%B9"'&3έ2 "9ώ1"'2 ό.b2 6 *>+B.&L3ή Έ9B16 (**). 2

3 11.1!"#$%&%"'(ί *$#+(ί F' "'1&,B,'3(ί A&15(ί '1/(+'3ά >.ή+c&9 /( 3>+'ό/"+( "+,&%"ί( "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2, %ό,b 3&' /(>,",(9ό/(2 ό/' 1/& A65ό1'& έ1(a&. Έ9&2 "'1&,B,'3ό2 A&15ό2 "ί9&' 1/69 (>1ί& έ9&2 #ό+(2.(> 3&/ά /69 "'1&,B,ή "9ό2 &,&8(ύ. F' A&15(ί 3&/ά 5(9άA& B2 1/&8"+ή ".ί 3ά8" 5(9άA&2 &,&8(ύ.(> "'1ά,"/&', "9ώ (' A&15(ί ".ί /62 &Cί&2 (ad valorem) "ί9&' έ9&.(1(1/ό /62 &Cί&2 /(> "'1&,(5έ9(> &,&8(ύ.!&' 1/'2 Aύ(."+'./ώ1"'2 ( A&15ό2 έd"' B2 &.(/έ%"15& /69 &ύc616 /'2 /'5ή2 /B9 "'1&,(5έ9B9 &,&8ώ9 1/6 Dώ+&.(> /(9 ".'@ά%%"'. =/( 3"#ά%&'( 6 &9&%ύ1&5" /'2 ".'./ώ1"'2 /B9 A&15ώ9 1/&.%&ί1'& /(> />.'3(ύ &9/&,B9'1/'3(ύ >.(A"ί,5&/(2 /(> A'"89(ύ2 "5.(+ί(>. =/( 3"#ά%&'( &>/ό 8& &9&%ύ1(>5" /'2 ".'./ώ1"'2 1/&.%&ί1'& "9ό2 >.(A"ί,5&/(2.+(1A'(+'15(ύ /62 '1(++(.ί&2,'& /69 &,(+ά "9ό2 5ό9( &,&8(ύ. *9ώ 6 &9ά%>1ή 5&2 1/( 3"#ά%&'( 6 ή/&9 &9ά%>16,"9'3ή2 '1(++(.ί&2, 6 &9ά%>1ή 5&2 "Aώ "ί9&' 5"+'3ή2 '1(++(.ί&2, 5" /69 έ99('& ό/' ".'3"9/+B9ό5&1/" 1" 5ί& 5ό9( &,(+ά 3&' έ9& 5ό9( 3%άA(. N '1(++(.ί& /62 &,(+ά2.&+(>1'άk"/&' 1/( 7'ά,+&55& =/( 7'ά,+&55& 11.1 >.(8έ/(>5" 5ί& 5'3+ή ('3(9(5ί&, 6 (.(ί&, %ό,b 5'3+(ύ 5",έ8(>2, έd"' 56A"9'3ή ".ίa+&16 1/(9.+(1A'(+'15ό /62 A'"89(ύ2 /'5ή2 /(>.+(Lό9/(2 /(> 3%άA(>. QB+ί2 /69 ".'@(%ή /(> A&15(ύ, 6 &,(+ά 8& '1(++(.(ύ1" 1/69.&,3ό15'& /'5ή P W. R.(8έ/(>5" ό/' 1/69 /'5ή &>/ή 6 ",Dώ+'& Kή/616 >."+@&ί9"' /69 ",Dώ+'&.+(1#(+ά, 3&' 6 A'&#(+ά 3&%ύ./"/&' &.ό "'1&,B,έ2. P"/ά /69 ".'@(%ή /(> A&15(ύ, 6 /'5ή &9"@&ί9"' &.ό P W 1" P T. N &ύc616 /62 /'5ή2.+(3&%"ί 5"ίB16 /62 ",Dώ+'&2 Kή/6162 3&' &ύc616 /62 ",Dώ+'&2.+(1#(+ά2.!&8ώ2 5"'ώ9"/&' 6 >."+@ά%%(>1& Kή/616, (' "'1&,B,έ2 5"'ώ9(9/&'. N ".'@(%ή /(> A&15(ύ (#"%"ί /(> ",Dώ+'(>2.&+&,B,(ύ2 /(>.+(Lό9/(2, 3&8ώ2 /(.%"ό9&15&.&+&,b,(ύ &>Cά9"/&' 3&/ά /( 5έ,"8(2 /62."+'(Dή2 a. F' ",Dώ+'(' 3&/&9&%B/έ2 8ί,(9/&' 3&8ώ2 &9&,3άK(9/&' 9& 5"'ώ1(>9 /69 3&/&9ά%B1ή /(>2 3&'.%6+ώ9(>9 >M6%ό/"+"2 /'5έ2,'& /6 5"'B5έ96 &>/ή 3&/&9ά%B16. N &.ώ%"'& /B9 3&/&9&%B/ώ9 '1(ύ/&' 5" /(9 "5@&Aό9 /B9."+'(Dώ9 a+b+c+d 1/( 7'ά,+&55& N 3>@έ+9616 (#"%"ί/&' 3&8ώ2 &.(3/ά."+'11ό/"+& έ1(a&, /& (.(ί& '1(ύ9/&' 5" /( ύm(2 /(> A&15(ύ ".ί /69.(1ό/6/& /B9 "'1&,B,ώ9 ("5@&Aό /(>.&+&%%6%(,+ά55(> c). )( 1>9(%'3ό 3('9B9'3ό &.(/έ%"15& &.ό /69 ".'@(%ή /(> A&15(ύ '1(ύ/&' 5" /6 A'&#(+ά /(> (#έ%(>2 /B9 ",Dώ+'B9.&+&,B,ώ9 3&' /62 3>@έ &.ό /( 3ό1/(2 /(> A&15(ύ,'& /(>2 3&/&9&%B/έ2. R.(8έ/(>5" "Aώ ό/' /( (+'&3ό 3ό1/(2 ή ό#"%(2 "9ό2 ".'.%έ(9 ">+ώ,'& /69 3ά8" 3('9B9'3ή (5άA& έd"' /69 ίa'& 3('9B9'3ή &Cί&. P" 3

4 &>/ή /69 >.ό8"16, /( 1>9(%'3ό 3('9B9'3ό &.(/έ%"15& "ί9&' &+96/'3ό 3&' '1(ύ/&' 5" - (b+d). =>5."+&15&/'3ά,,'& 5'& 5'3+ή ('3(9(5ί& 6 (.(ί& %&5@ά9"' /(>2 ό+(>2 "5.(+ί(> /62 B2 A"A(5έ9(>2, /( 1>9ό%'3( 3('9B9'3ό &.(/έ%"15& &.ό /69 ".'@(%ή A&15ώ9 "ί9&' &+96/'3ό, 3&8ώ2 *" 2,0+*ί :;*),3*ύ% #.=ώ;"#' 0?;#@3ώ0#"' :*6 +#"ώ%*6%?4% )*"%8%")ή #64+#;ί,. )( ό#"%(2 /B9.&+&,B,ώ9 "'1&,(5έ9B9.+(Lό9/B9 3&' /& ".'.%έ(9 A65ό1'& έ1(a& A"9 ".&+3(ύ9,'& 9& 3&%ύM(>9 /'2 &.ώ%"'"2 /B9 3&/&9&%B/ώ9.!&/ά 1>9έ."'&,,'& 5ί& 5'3+ή ('3(9(5ί& "'1&,B,'3ό2 A&15ό2 '1(ύ/&' 5" /( 56Aέ9, A'ό/' 5ό9( /ό/" "%&D'1/(.('(ύ9/&' (' ",Dώ+'"2 1/+"@%ώ1"'2 3&' 5",'1/(.('"ί/&' 6 3('9B9'3ή &.(/"%"15&/'3ό/6/&. =/( 7'ά,+&55& 11.2 &9&%ύ(>5" /'2 ".'./ώ1"'2 "9ό2 "'1&,B,'3(ύ A&15(ύ 1" 5ί& 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί&. =" 5ί& 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί&, 6 5"ίB16 /62 Kή/6162.(>.+(3&%"ί ( A&15ό2,'& /( &,&8ό 1/( (.(ί( ".'@ά%%"/&' έd"' B2 &.(/έ%"15& 3&' /6 5"ίB16 /62 A'"89(ύ2 /'5ή2 /(>.!&/ά 1>9έ."'&, >.ά+d"' έ9& ".'.%έ(9 ό#"%(2 &.ό /6 5"ίB16 /62 A'"89(ύ2 /'5ή2 /(> "'1&,(5έ9(>.+(Lό9/(2 1/( (.(ί( ".'@ά%%"/&' ( A&15ό2 (@"%/ίb16 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(>). )( ".'.%έ(9 &>/ό ό#"%(2 '1(ύ/&' 5" /69 ".'#ά9"'& /(>.&+&%%6%(,+ά55(> e 1/( 7'ά,+&55& G'& /6 Dώ+&.(> ".'@ά%%"' /( A&15ό, /( ό#"%(2 &.ό /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> 5"/+'άK"' /( 3ό1/(2 /B9 ",Dώ+'B9 1/+"@%ώ1"B9.(> A65'(>+,(ύ9/&', 3&' "9A"D(5έ9B2 ( "'1&,B,'3ό2 A&15ό2 9& "ί9&' 1>9(%'3ά ".B#"%ή2,'& /6 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί&.(> /(9 ".'@ά%%"'. A", %, #ί%," #:85#3ή' * #"0,.8.")ό' 2,0+ό'.", +ί, +#.ά34 *")*%*+ί,,?* ό;8% #+:*;ί*6 :;έ:#" %, 6:#;@,ί%#"?* )ό0?*',:ό?"' #.=ώ;"#' 0?;#@3ώ0#"'. H>/ό &.&'/"ί 9& '1Dύ"' 6 1>98ή36 e > b+d. O1/ό1(, 6 ".'@(%ή "9ό2 "'1&,B,'3(ύ A&15(ύ 8ί,"' /'2 Dώ+"2.(> "Cά,(>9 /(.+(Lό9 1/( (.(ί( ".'@ά%%"/&' ( A&15ό2, 3&8ώ2 (A6,"ί 1" D"'+(/έ+">16 /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /(>2. H>/ό 5.(+"ί 9& /'2 (A6,ή1"' 1/( 9& ".'@ά%%(>9 &9/'1/&85'1/'3ή &ύc616 /B9 "'1&,B,'3ώ9 A&15ώ9 1/&.+(Lό9/&.(> "'1ά,(>9 &.ό /6 Dώ+&.(> ".'@ά%%"' A&15(ύ2 1/& A'3ά /(>2 "C&,B,'3ά.+(Lό9/&.!ά/' /έ/('( 8& "ίd" B2 1>9έ."'& /69 &.ώ%"'& /(> (#έ%(>2 &.ό /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(>, /(9."+'(+'15ό /(> ό,3(> /(> A'"89(ύ2 "5.(+ί(>, 3&' /69,"9'3ό/"+6 &ύc616 /B9 1/+"@%ώ1"B9 1/69.&,3ό15'& ('3(9(5ί&. =>5."+&15&/'3ά, &9 3&','& 5ί& 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί& έ9&2 "'1&,B,'3ό2 A&15ό2 5.(+"ί 9& 1>9".ά,"/&' ό#"%(2 &.ό /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /62, /( (.(ί( C"."+9ά /( 3ό1/(2 /B9 ",Dώ+'B9 1/+"@%ώ1"B9, 5ί& 56 1>9/(9'15έ96,"9'3">5έ96 &ύc616 /B9 "'1&,B,'3ώ9 A&15ώ9 1/69.&,3ό15'& ('3(9(5ί& (A6,"ί 1" &ύc616 /B9 ",DB+ίB9 1/+"@%ώ1"B9 1" ό%"2 /'2 Dώ+"2, DB+ί2 ".'./ώ1"'2 1/(>2 ό+(>2 "5.(+ί(> 3&55ί&2 Dώ+&2, 1/(9."+'(+'15ό /(> ό,3(> /(> A'"89(ύ2 "5.(+ί(> 3&' 1" 5"'ώ16 /62.&,3ό15'&2 ">65"+ί&2. 4

5 11.2!,$%&%"'έ.!/"0(1ή#3". F' #C,.8.")έ' #:"2*?ή0#"', 1>9ί1/&9/&' 1" ".'.%έ(9.%6+b5έ2 &.ό /( 3+ά/(2 1/(>2 ",Dώ+'(>2.&+&,B,(ύ2.(>.+&,5&/(.('(ύ9 "C&,B,έ2. 7"A(5έ9(> ό/' (' "C&,B,"ί2 /'2 "C&,B,έ2 /(>2 /'5έ2.(> "ί9&' >M6%ό/"+"2 &.ό /6 A'"89ή /'5ή /(>.+(Lό9/(2 /(>2, &>/ό έd"' 1&9 1>9έ."'& /69 ά9(a( /62 1D"/'3ή2 /'5ή2 /(> "C&,(5έ9(> &,&8(ύ 3&' 1/69 ",Dώ+'& &,(+ά.ά9b &.ό /6 A'"89ή /'5ή, 1" ".ί."a(.(> 3ά9"' /(>2.&+&,B,(ύ2 &A'ά#(+(>2,'& /( &9.&+ά,(>9,'& "C&,B,ή ή,'& /69 ",Dώ+'& 3&/&9ά%B16. F' ".'./ώ1"'2 5'&2 "C&,B,'3ή2 ".'Aό/6162 1" έ9& "C&,B,'3ό 3%άA( 5'&2 5'3+ή2 ('3(9(5ί&2.&+ί1/&9/&' 1/( 7'ά,+&55& P" /69 3&8'έ+B16 /62 "C&,B,'3ή2 ".'Aό/ /'5ή /(>.+(Lό9/(2 1/69 ",Dώ+'& &,(+ά &>Cά9"/&' &.ό /6 A'"89ή /'5ή P W 1/69 /'5ή P X. N ",Dώ+'&.&+&,B,ή /(> "C&,(5έ9(> &,&8(ύ &>Cά9"/&' 3&' 6 ",Dώ+'& Kή/616 5"'ώ9"/&', 5" &.(/έ%"15& 9& &9έ@"' ( ό,3(2 /B9 "C&,B,ώ9. )( ό#"%(2 /B9.&+&,B,ώ9 /(> "C&,(5έ9(>.+(Lό9/(2 '1(ύ/&' 5" a+b+c. N &.ώ%"'"2 /B9 ",Dώ+'B9 3&/&9&%B/ώ9 '1(ύ9/&' 5" a+b. )( 3ό1/(2 /62 ".'Aό/6162 /B9 "C&,B,ώ9,'& /69 3>@έ+9616 '1(ύ/&' 5" b+c+d. )( 1>9(%'3ό 3('9B9'3ό &.(/έ%"15& "ί9&' 3&'.ά%' &+96/'3ό, 3&' '1(ύ/&' 5" -(b+d).!&/ά 1>9έ."'&, 1" 5ί& 5'3+ή ('3(9(5ί&, (' "C&,B,'3έ2 ".'A(/ή1"'2.+(3&%(ύ9 ",Dώ+'"2 1/+"@%ώ1"'2.(> 5"'ώ9(>9 /69 &.(/"%"15&/'3ό/6/& /62 ('3(9(5ί&2 3&' /69 3('9B9'3ή ">65"+ί&. F' 1/+"@%ώ1"'2 "ί9&' &3ό56 5",&%ύ/"+"2 1" 5ί& 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί&, A'ό/' (' "C&,B,'3έ2 ".'A(/ή1"'2, 5" /( 9& &>Cά9(>9 /6 A'"89ή.+(1#(+ά /(> "C&,(5έ9(>.+(Lό9/(2 1/69.&,3ό15'& &,(+ά.+(3&%(ύ9./ώ16 /62 A'"89(ύ2 /'5ή2 /(>, 3&' ".'A"ί9B16 /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /62 Dώ+&2.(>.+(1#"ύ,"' 1/69 "C&,B,'3ή ".'Aό/616. N &9ά%>16 /B9 ".'./ώ1"b9 5'&2 "C&,B,'3ή2 ".'Aό/6162 1/(9 "C&,B,'3ό 3%άA( 5'&2 5",ά%62 ('3(9(5ί&2.&+(>1'άK"/&' 1/( 7'ά,+&55& *3/ό2 &.ό /'2 ",Dώ+'"2 1/+"@%ώ1"'2.(> A65'(>+,(ύ9/&' >.ά+d"' έ9& ".'.%έ(9 3ό1/(2 &.ό /69 5"ίB16 /62 /'5ή2 /(> "C&,(5έ9(>.+(Lό9/(2 &.ό P W 1" P W. )( ".'.%έ(9 &>/ό 3ό1/(2 5"/+ά/&' &.ό /( "5@&Aό9 /(>.&+&%%6%(,+ά55(> e. =>5."+&15&/'3ά, "9ώ,'& 5ί& 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί& έ9&2 "'1&,B,'3ό2 A&15ό2.+(3&%"ί (#έ%6 &.ό /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /62, 5ί& "C&,B,'3ή ".'Aό/616 όd' 5ό9(.+(3&%"ί ",Dώ+'"2 1/+"@%ώ1"'2 &%%ά A65'(>+,"ί 3&' ".'.%έ(9 3ό1/(2 &.ό /6 ".'A"ί9B16 /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /62. =/( ".ό5"9( /5ή5& &9&%ύ(>5" 5ί& &.ό /'2.'( 165&9/'3έ2."+'./ώ1"'2 A'"89ώ2 "C&,B,'3ώ9 ".'A(/ή1"B9, /69!('9ή H,+(/'3ή <(%'/'3ή (!H<) /62 *.*. 5

6 ("6ή 7%8(1"'ή 9(:"1"'ή 1;.!<8&/$='ή. Έ6&#;. N!('9ή H,+(/'3ή <(%'/'3ή (!H<) /62 *>+B.&L3ή2 Έ9B162 C"3ί961" B2 5ί&.+(1.ά8"'& ",,>65έ9B9 3&/ώ/&/B9 /'5ώ9,'& /(>2 *>+B.&ί(>2 &,+ό/"2 &.ό /69 ".(Dή /62 *>+B.&L3ή2 F'3(9(5'3ή2!('9ό/6/&2 (*F!). =>9A>ά1/63" &+D'3ά 5" A&15(ύ2.(> "C(>A"/έ+B9&9 /6 A'&#(+ά 5"/&Cύ A'"89ώ9 3&' ">+B.&L3ώ9 /'5ώ9 &,+(/'3ώ9.+(Lό9/B9. H.ό /6 A"3&"/ί& /(> 1970 (' /'5έ2 ή/&9 /ό1( >M6%έ2.(> A65'(>+,ή863" >."+@ά%%(>1&.+(1#(+ά. N *F! D+61'5(.(ί61" "C&,B,'3έ2 ".'A(/ή1"'2,'& 9& A'&8έ1"' /69 >."+@ά%%(>1&.+(1#(+ά 1/69.&,3ό15'& &,(+ά. P" /(9 /+ό.( &>/ό 6!H< "C"%ίD863" 1/( 5&K'3ό/"+(.+ό,+&55& ".'A(/ή1"B9 "C&,B,ώ9 1/69.&,3ό15'& ('3(9(5ί&. N &9ά%>16 /B9 ('3(9(5'3ώ9 ".'./ώ1"b9 /62!H<.&+(>1'άK"/&' 1/( 7'ά,+&55& QB+ί2 /69!H<, (' /'5έ2 /B9 &,+(/'3ώ9.+(Lό9/B9 1/69 *>+ώ.6 8& "C'1ώ9(9/&9 5" /'2 A'"89"ί2 /'5έ2, 1/( D&56%ό ".ί."a( A'"89ώ9 /'5ώ9 P W. H!H< 1>9".ά,"/&' ".ί."a( /'5ώ9 1/ή+'C62 P C. )( ".ί."a( &>/ό 1>9".ά,"/&' /'5έ2 (' (.(ί"2 "ί9&' όd' 5ό9( >M6%ό/"+"2 &.ό /'2 A'"89"ί2 /'5έ2 P W, &%%ά 3&' >M6%ό/"+"2 &.ό /'2 /'5έ2.(> 8& "C'1(++(.(ύ1&9 /69.+(1#(+ά 3&' /6 Kή/616 &,+(/'3ώ9.+(Lό9/B9 1/69 *>+ώ.6 (P E ). H.(/έ%"15& &>/(ύ "ί9&' 6 *>+ώ.&l3ή Έ9B16, 6 (.(ί& 8& ή/&9 3&8&+ό2 "'1&,B,έ&2 &,+(/'3ώ9.+(Lό9/B9 &.ό Dώ+"2 1" 1>,3+'/'3ό.%"(9έ3/65& 1/69.&+&,B,ή &,+(/'3ώ9.+(Lό9/B9, 9& 3&8ί1/&/&' 3&8&+ό2 "C&,B,έ&2 &,+(/'3ώ9.+(Lό9/B9, A"A(5έ9(> ό/' 6 >."+@ά%%(>1&.+(1#(+ά 1/( ".ί."a( /'5ώ9 P C "Cά,"/&' 1/(9 >.ό%('.( 3ό15( 1/69.&,3ό15'& /'5ή P W. Έ/1', 6 /'5ή 1/ή+'C62 %"'/(>+,"ί B2 5ί& "C&,B,'3ή ".'Aό/616. N &ύc616 /62.&,3ό15'&2.+(1#(+ά2 /+(#ί5b9 %ό,b /62!H< έd"' B2 &.(/έ%"15& 3&' /6 5"ίB16 /62.&,3ό15'&2 /'5ή2 &.ό P W 1" P W 3&' /69 ".'A"ί9B16 /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /B9 DB+ώ9.(> έd(>9 1>,3+'/'3ό.%"(9έ3/65& 1/69.&+&,B,ή /+(#ί5b9, ό.b2 (' N<H, (!&9&Aά2, 6 H+,"9/'9ή, 6 Sέ& T6%&9Aί& 3&' 5'& 1"'+ά &.ό %',ό/"+( &9&./>,5έ9"2 ('3(9(5ί"2. )( 3ό1/(2 /62!H<,'& /(>2 *>+B.&ίB2 3&/&9&%B/έ2 3&' /(>2 *>+B.&ί(>2 #(+(%(,(>5έ9(>2 "ί9&' A>18"ώ+6/(. Ά%%B1/", 6!H< &.(/"%"ί /( 5",&%ύ/"+( 5έ+(2 /B9 A&.&9ώ9 /(> 3('9(/'3(ύ.+(V.(%(,'15(ύ /62 *>+B.&L3ή2 Έ9B162. Ό.B2 #&ί9"/&' &.ό /( 7'ά,+&55& 11.5, /( 3ό1/(2,'& /(>2 *>+B.&ί(>2 3&/&9&%B/έ2 5"/+ά/&' &.ό /( "5@&Aό9 /B9 ".'#&9"'ώ9 a+b+c+f+g+h. )( 3ό1/(2,'& /(>2 *>+B.&ί(>2 #(+(%(,(>5έ9(>2, A6%&Aή /( 3ό1/(2 /62 ".'Aό/6162, 5"/+ά/&' &.ό /( "5@&Aό9 /B9 ".'#&9"'ώ9 c+d+e+f+i. )( ό#"%(2 /B9 *>+B.&ίB9 &,+(/ώ9 5"/+ά/&' &.ό /( "5@&Aό9 /B9 ".'#&9"'ώ9 b+c+d, 3&' "ί9&' ( 3ύ+'(2 %ό,(2 ύ.&+c62 /62!H<, 6

7 %ό,b /62.(%'/'3ή2 ".'++(ή2 /B9 &,+(/ώ9 1" &+3"/έ2 Dώ+"2 /62 *>+B.&L3ή2 Έ9B162. )( 1>9(%'3ό 3('9B9'3ό &.(/έ%"15&,'& /69 *>+ώ.6 "ί9&' 1&#ώ2 &+96/'3ό, 3&' '1(ύ/&', 5" ό+(>2 /(> 7'&,+ά55&/(2 11.5, 5" -(a+c+e+2f+g+h+i). Pί&.+ό1#&/6 5"%έ/6 /B9 Boulanger and Jomini (2010) >.(%ό,'1" ό/' /( 3('9B9'3ό 3ό1/(2,'& /(>2 *>+B.&ί(>2 3&/&9&%B/έ2,'& /( 2007 /( 3('9B9'3ό ό#"%(2,'& /(>2 *>+B.&ί(>2 &,+ό/"2 3&/ά 21,5 A'1"3&/(55ύ+'& ">+ώ. )(9 ίa'( D+ό9( (2007), /( 3ό1/(2 /62!H<,'& /(9 *>+B.&ί( #(+(%(,(ύ5"9( &9ή%8" 1"."+ί.(> 50 A'2 ">+ώ, /( 45%."+ί.(> /(> 1>9(%'3(ύ.+(V.(%(,'15(ύ /62 *>+B.&L3ή2 Έ9B162.!&/ά 1>9έ."'&, /( 1>9(%'3ό 3&8&+ό 3ό1/(2 /62!H< /( 2007 C".έ+&1" /& 70 A'2 ">+ώ, 3&' '1(A>9&5(ύ1" 5" /( 0,56% /(> H*< /62 *>+B.&L3ή2 Έ9B162, ή /( 33% /(> H*< /62 *%%άa(2. *.'.%έ(9, %ό,b /62 1>5.ί"162 /B9 A'"89ώ9 /'5ώ9 /B9 /+(#ί5b9.(>.+(3&%"ί, 6!H< 1>9".ά,"/&' 165&9/'3ό 3ό1/(2,'& ά%%"2 Dώ+"2.(> έd(>9 1>,3+'/'3ό.%"(9έ3/65& 1/69.&+&,B,ή /+(#ί5b9, 3&8ώ2 ".'A"'9ώ9"' /(>2 ό+(>2 "5.(+ί(> /(>2 (N<H, H>1/+&%ί&, Sέ& T6%&9Aί&, H+,"9/'9ή, &9&A>ό5"9"2 ('3(9(5ί"2). *.ί.(%%ά D+ό9'&, (' N<H &%%ά 3&'.(%%έ2 ά%%"2 Dώ+"2.'έK(>9 /69 *>+B.&L3ή Έ9B16 9& &9&8"B+ή1"' /69!H<, έ/1' ώ1/" 9&."+'(+'18(ύ9 (' 1/69.&,3ό15'& ('3(9(5ί&. )& /"%">/&ί& D+ό9'& 6!H< έd"' &9&5(+#B8"ί 5" έ5#&16 1/6 "'1(A65&/'3ή 1/ή+'C6 /B9 &,+(/ώ9, 5" 1/όD( 9&."+'(+'18(ύ9 /ό1( (' 1/69 *>+ώ.6 3&' A'"89ώ9, ό1( 3&' /( A65(1'(9(5'3ό /62 3ό1/( (:"1"'ή. *3/ό2 &.ό /(>2 A&15(ύ2 3&' /'2 ".'A(/ή1"'2 /B9 "C&,B,ώ9, >.ά+d(>9 3&' ά%%& 5έ1& "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2. )έ/('& 5έ1& "ί9&' ('.(1(1/ώ1"'2 /B9 "'1&,B,ώ9, (' "3(ύ1'('."+'(+'15(ί /B9 "C&,B,ώ9, (' &C'ώ1"'2,'& "%άd'1/( ",Dώ+'( 5"+ίA'(.&+&,B,ή2, (' ".'A(/ή1"'2 /B9 "C&,B,'3ώ9.'1/ώ1"B9, 6 A'&3+'/'3ή 5"/&D"ί+'16 >.έ+ /B9 ",DB+ίB9.+(Lό9/B9 1/'2.+(5ή8"'"2 /(> 765(1ί(> 3&' 5ί& 1"'+ά &.ό,+&#"'(3+&/'3ά "5.όA'&. F' :*0*0?ώ0#"'?8% #"0,.8.ώ% &.(/"%(ύ9 ά5"1(>2."+'(+'15(ύ2 1/'2.(1ό/6/"2 /B9.+(Lό9/B9.(> 5.(+(ύ9 9& "'1&D8(ύ9 1" 5ί& Dώ+&. Pί&.(1ό1/B16 "'1&,B,ώ9 έd"' B2 &.(/έ%"15& 9& A65'(>+,"ί/&' >."+@ά%%(>1& Kή/616,'& /(.+(Lό9 /( (.(ί( >.ό3"'/&' 1".(1ό1/B16, 3&' έ/1' 9& &>Cά9"' 6 /'5ή /(>, έb2 ό/(> 6 &,(+ά "C'1(++(.ή1"' 3&'.ά%'. Pί&.(1ό1/B16 έd"'.ά9/& B2 &.(/έ%"15& /69 &ύc616 /62 /'5ή2 /(> "'1&,(5έ9(> &,&8(ύ. 7

8 N &9ά%>16 /B9.(1(1/ώ1"B9 /B9 "'1&,B,ώ9.&+(>1'άK"/&' 1/( 7'ά,+&55& P" /69 "'1&,B,ή 5'&2.(1ό1/B162 &>Cά9"/&' /'5ή /(>.+(Lό9/(2 3&' 6 ",Dώ+'&.&+&,B,ή 3&' 5"'ώ9"/&' 6 ",Dώ+'& Kή/616. O#"%(ύ9/&' /ό1( (' ",Dώ+'('.&+&,B,(ί, ό1( 3&' (' ",Dώ+'(' "'1&,B,"ί2.(>.+(1.(+ίK(9/&' (5&Kί 5" /(>2.&+&,B,(ύ2 &.ό /( "CB/"+'3ό) /69.+ό1(A(.(> A65'(>+,"ί 6.(1ό1/B16, 3&8ώ2 6 ",Dώ+'& /'5ή >."+@&ί9"' /6 A'"89ή /'5ή. )( 1>9(%'3ό 3('9B9'3ό &.(/έ%"15& ό5b2 "ί9&' 3&'.ά%' &+96/'3ό, 3&8ώ2 /& (#έ%6,'& /(>2.&+&,B,(ύ2 A"9 ".&+3(ύ9,'& 9& 3&%ύM(>9 /( 3ό1/(2.(> >#ί1/&9/&' (' 3&/&9&%B/έ2. Ό.B2 3&' 1/69."+ί./B16 /B9 A&15ώ9, ('.(1(1/ώ1"'2 /B9 "'1&,B,ώ9 5.(+"ί, 1/69."+ί./B16 5'&2 5",ά%62 ('3(9(5ί&2, /(>2 ό+(>2 "5.(+ί(>. H9/ί1/('D"2 ".'./ώ1"'2 έd(>9 3&' (' "3(ύ1'(' "C&,B,'3(ί."+'(+'15(ί. Έ9&2 /έ/('(2."+'(+'15ό2 ".'@ά%%"/&' &.ό /6 Dώ+& "C&,B,ή2, &%%ά 1/69 (>1ί& &.(/"%"ί &ί/65& /62 Dώ+&2 "'1&,B,ή2. )& ('3(9(5'3ά &.(/"%έ15&/ά /(> "ί9&' &9ά%(,& /B9.(1(1/ώ1"B9 /B9 "'1&,B,ώ9, &%%ά ('.+ό1(a('.(> A65'(>+,(ύ9/&' ">9((ύ9 /6 Dώ+& "C&,B,ή2. F' "3(ύ1'('."+'(+'15(ί /B9 "C&,B,ώ9 ">9((ύ9 /(>2.&+&,B,(ύ2 1/6 Dώ+& "'1&,B,ή2, 5"'ώ9(>9 /(.%"ό9&15& /B9 3&/&9&%B/ώ9 1/6 Dώ+& "'1&,B,ή2 3&'.+(1.(+ίK(>9.+(1όA(>2 1/(>2.&+&,B,(ύ2 /62 Dώ+&2 "C&,B,ή2. H9ά%(,"2 ".'./ώ1"'2 έd(>9 3&' (' &.&'/ή1"'2,'& 1>,3"3+'5έ9(.(1(1/ό ",Dώ+'&2.+(1/'8έ5"962 %"'/(>+,(ύ9 3&' &>/έ2 ό.b2 ('.(1(1/ώ1"'2 1/'2 "'1&,B,έ2. R.ά+D(>9 ό5b2 3&' ά%%& 5έ1& "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2. )έ/('& 5έ1& "ί9&' (' ".'A(/ή1"'2 /B9 "C&,B,'3ώ9.'1/ώ1"B9, 6 A'&3+'/'3ή 5"/&D"ί+'16 >.έ+ /B9 ",DB+ίB9.+(Lό9/B9 1/'2.+(5ή8"'"2 /(> 765(1ί(> 3&' /&,+&#"'(3+&/'3ά "5.όA'& 1/'2 "'1&,B,έ2. F' #:"2*?ή0#"'?8% #C,.8.")ώ% :"0?ώ0#8% %"'/(>+,(ύ9 ό.b2 (' "C&,B,'3έ2 ".'A(/ή1"'2, 5ό9(.(> %&5@ά9(>9 /6 5(+#ή ".'Aό/6/62 /B9.'1/ώ1"B9 /B9 "C&,B,έB9. <(%%έ2 Dώ+"2 έd(>9 "'A'3(ύ2 D+6/(.'1/B/'3(ύ2 (+,&9'15(ύ2,'& /( %ό,( &>/ό, ή &3ό56 3&' (+,&9'15(ύ2 &1#ά%'162 "C&,B,'3ώ9.'1/ώ1"B9. N 2",);"?")ή +#?,=#ί;"04 6:έ;?8% #.=8;ί8% :;*Dό%?8% 0?"' :;*+ή$#"#'?*6!4+*0ί*6 "ί9&' 3&' &>/ή έ9& "+,&%"ί( "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2. F'.+(5ή8"'"2 /(> A65(1ί(> ή /B9 A65(1ίB9 ".'D"'+ή1"B9 3&' (+,&9'15ώ9 1".(%%έ2 Dώ+"2 3&/">8ύ9(9/&'.+(2 ",Dώ+'(>2.&+&,B,(ύ2, &3ό56 3&' &9 /( 3ό1/(2.+(5ή8"'&2 "ί9&' >M6%ό/"+( &.ό /( 3ό1/(2 /B9 "'1&,(5έ9B9. Έ9& 3%&11'3ό.&+άA"',5& ή/&9 ( 3%άA(2 /B9 /6%".'3('9B9'ώ9 1/69 *>+B.&L3ή Έ9B16, ό.(> 5έD+'.+'9 5ί& A"3&"/ί& 3>+'&+D(ύ1&9 ('.+(,+&55&/'3έ2 1>5#B9ί"2 5" ",Dώ+'(>2.+(568">/έ2 /6%".'3('9B9'&3(ύ >%'3(ύ, 5" 1>9έ."'& >M6%ό/"+"2 /'5έ2 3&' "%άd'1/( A'"89έ2 "5.ό+'(. 8

9 )έ%(2,.(%%έ2 #(+έ2 (' 3&/&#"ύ,(>9 1".;,5#"*);,?")ά #+:ό2",. R,"'(9(5'3(ί 3&9ό9"2, 3&9(9'15(ί &1#&%"ί&2.+(Lό9/B9 3&' /"%B9"'&3έ2 A'&A'3&1ί"2 έd(>9.(%%έ2 #(+έ2 D+61'5(.('68"ί B2 "+,&%"ί& /62 "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2. Έ9& 3%&11'3ό.&+άA"',5& "ί9&' έ9&,&%%'3ό A'ά/&,5& /(> 1982, ό/' ό%"2 (' έ.+"." 9& A'"3."+&'ώ9(9/&' 5έ1B "9ό2 5'3+(ύ /"%B9"ί(> 1/( Poitiers, /( (.(ί( A"9 5.(+(ύ1" 9& &9/&.(3+'8"ί 1/(9 ό,3( /B9 "'1&,B,ώ9, 5" &.(/έ%"15& &.ί1/">/" *"3A6έ.!+/ό8"( '$" *"3A63ί.!+/(8"'(ί C3#+(ί G'& /(>2."+'11ό/"+(>2 ('3(9(5(%ό,(>2 /( "%"ύ8"+( "5.ό+'(.+(3&%"ί 165&9/'3ά (#έ%6,'& ό%"2 /'2 Dώ+"2, %ό,b /62 &ύc6162 /62 &.(/"%"15&/'3ό/6/&2 /62.&,3ό15'&2 ('3(9(5ί&2. O1/ό1(, 6 &."%">8έ+B16 /(> "5.(+ί(> 1>9&9/ά 165&9/'3ά "5.όA'&, %ό,b /B9 ".'./ώ1"b9 /62 1/6 A'&9(5ή /(> "'1(Aή5&/(2 1/'2 A'ά#(+"2 Dώ+"2. N ύ.&+c6 /62!('9ή2 H,+(/'3ή2 <(%'/'3ή2, &%%ά 3&' 6 1D"/'3ά "3/"/&5έ96 1>9"D'Kό5"96 D+ή16 A&15ώ9,.(1(1/ό1"B9 "'1&,B,ώ9 3&' ά%%b9 "+,&%"ίb9."+'(+'15(ύ /(> A'"89(ύ2 "5.(+ί(> &.(/"%(ύ9 &./ά.&+&a"ί,5&/& /62 165&1ί&2 /62 A'&9(5ή2 /(> "'1(Aή5&/(2,'& /6 A'"89ή "5.(+'3ή.(%'/'3ή. *.'.%έ(9, (' 5",ά%"2 Dώ+"2 5.(+(ύ9 9& B#"%68(ύ9 &.ό A&15(ύ2 3&' "C&,B,'3(ύ2 #ό+(>2, %ό,b /B9 ">5"9ώ9 ".'./ώ1"b9 /(>2 1/(>2 ό+(>2 "5.(+ί(>. O1/ό1(, 3'9A>9"ύ(>9 &.ό &9/'1/&85'1/'3ά 5έ/+& &.ό /(>2 &9/&,B9'1/έ2 /(>2, 5" &.(/έ%"15& 5"ίB16 /62 ">65"+ί&2,'& ό%(>2. G'&.&+άA"',5&, A"ί/" /69."+ί./B16.(>."+',+ά#"/&' 1/( 7'ά,+&55& ΈD(>5" Aύ( 5",ά%"2 ('3(9(5ί"2, /69 N5"A&.ή 3&' /69 H%%(A&.ή. N 3ά8" 5ί& 3&8(+ίK"' /69 "5.(+'3ή /62.(%'/'3ή %&5@ά9(9/&2 /69.(%'/'3ή /62 ά%%62 B2 A"A(5έ96, A6%&Aή DB+ί2 1>9/(9'15ό 5" /69 ά%%6. N.+ώ/6 1"'+ά."+',+ά#"' /& &.(/"%έ15&/&,'& /'2 Aύ( Dώ+"2 &9 6 N5"A&.ή ".'@ά%%"' A&15(ύ2 1/'2 "'1&,B,έ2 /62. H9 6 H%%(A&.ή ".'@ά%%"' 3&' &>/ή A&15(ύ2, /ό/" 3&' (' Aύ( Dώ+"2 8& >.(1/(ύ9 /( 3ό1/(2 /B9 ",Dώ+'B9 1/+"@%ώ1"B9 &.ό /(>2 "'1&,B,'3(ύ2 A&15(ύ2, DB+ί2 3&9έ9& ό#"%(2 /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /(>2. H9 6 H%%(A&.ή A"9 ".'@ά%%"' A&15(ύ2, /ό/" 6 N5"A&.ή 8& έd"' ό#"%(2 &.ό /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /62.(> 8& "C(>A"/"+ώ1"' /( 3ό1/(2 /B9 ",Dώ+'B9 1/+"@%ώ1"B9, "9ώ 6 H%%(A&.ή 8& έd"' 3ό1/(2 &.ό /69 ".'A"ί9B16 /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /62. =/6 A"ύ/"+6 1"'+ά."+',+ά#(9/&' /& &.(/"%έ15&/&,'& /'2 Aύ( Dώ+"2 &9 6 N5"A&.ή A"9 ".'@ά%%"' A&15(ύ2 1/'2 "'1&,B,έ2 /62. H9 6 H%%(A&.ή ".'@ά%%"' A&15(ύ2, /ό/" 6 N5"A&.ή 8& έd"' 3ό1/(2 &.ό /69 ".'A"ί9B16 /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /62. H9 6 9

10 H%%(A&.ή A"9 3&' &>/ή A&15(ύ2, /ό/" 8& >.ά+d(>9 3&','& /'2 Aύ( /& (#έ%6 &.ό /( "%"ύ8"+( "5.ό+'(. QB+ί2 1>9/(9'15ό /B9 "5.(+'3ώ9.(%'/'3ώ9, 6.&,3ό15'& ('3(9(5ί& 8& 3&/&%ήC"' 1/( 165"ί( 9& A&15(ύ2 3&' (' Aύ( Dώ+"2. H9 3ά8" Dώ+& &3(%(>8"ί /6 1/+&/6,'3ή /(> 9& ".'%έc"' /6 8έ16 /62 5" A"A(5έ96 /69 ".'%(,ή /62 ά%%62, 3&' (' Aύ( Dώ+"2 8& ".'%έc(>9 9& A&15(ύ2. G'&.&+άA"',5&, &2 13"#8(ύ5".('& "ί9&' 6 3&%ύ/"+6 ".'%(,ή /62 N5"A&.ή2, &9 6 H%%(A&.ή ".'@ά%%"' A&15(ύ2. =>,3+ί9(9/&2 /& &.(/"%έ15&/& 1/69.+ώ/6 1/ή%6 /(> <ί9&3&, ".'%(,ή /62 N5"A&.ή2 "ί9&' 9& ".'@ά%%"' 3&' &>/ή A&15(ύ2. H9 6 H%%(A&.ή A"9 ".'@ά%%"' A&15(ύ2 (A"ύ/"+6 1/ή%6), /ό/".ά%' ".'%(,ή /62 N5"A&.ή2 "ί9&' 9& ".'@ά%%"' A&15(ύ2.!&/ά 1>9έ."'&, &9"Cά+/6/& &.ό /( /' 8& ".'%έc"' 6 H%%(A&.ή, ".'%(,ή /62 N5"A&.ή2 "ί9&' 9& ".'@ά%%"' A&15(ύ2. P'&.&+ό5('& &9ά%>16 8& 5&2 (A6,ή1"' 1/( 1>5.έ+&15& ό/', &9"Cά+/6/& &.ό /69 ".'%(,ή /62 N5"A&.ή2, ".'%(,ή /62 H%%(A&.ή2 "ί9&' 9& ".'@ά%%"' 3&' &>/ή A&15(ύ2.!&/ά 1>9έ."'&, DB+ί2 1>99"9ό616 3&' 1>9/(9'15ό, 6.&,3ό15'& ('3(9(5ί& 8& 3&/&%ήC"' 5" A&15(ύ2 3&' 1/'2 Aύ( Dώ+"2 (&>/ή "ί9&' 6 '1(++(.ί& 3&/ά Nash 1" &>/ό /(.&ί,9'(), 3ά/'.(> 1&#ώ2 A"9 ".'/>,Dά9"' /62.&,3ό15'&2 ">65"+ί&2. F.('&Aή.(/" ά%%6 3&/ά1/&16 A65'(>+,"ί 3ί96/+& 3&' 1/'2 Aύ( Dώ+"2 9& &%%άc(>9 /69.(%'/'3ή /(>2, ά+& A"9 &.(/"%"ί '1(++(.ί&. G'&.&+άA"',5&, &2.(ύ5" ό/' 3&' 6 Aύ( Dώ+"2 ".έ%",&9 9& 569 ".'@ά%%(>9 A&15(ύ2. N 3&/ά1/&16 &>/ή A"9 "ί9&' 1/&8"+ή. )ό1( 6 N5"A&.ή, ό1( 3&' 6 H%%(A&.ή,,9B+ίK(9/&2 ό/' ( ά%%(2 A"9 έd"' ".'@ά%%"' A&15(ύ2, έd(>9 3ί96/+( 9& ".'@ά%%(>9 A&15(ύ2, A'ό/' /69 &/(5'3ή /(>2 ">65"+ί&. =>9".ώ2, DB+ί2 1>99"9ό616 3&' DB+ί2 &5('@&ί"2 A"15"ύ1"'2, 6 3&/ά1/&16 &>/ή A"9 "ί9&' 1/&8"+ή. N &9ά%>16 &>/ή "ί9&' 5ί& "#&+5(,ή "9ό2,"9'3ό/"+(> &.(/"%έ15&/(2 1/6 8"B+ί& /B9.&',9ίB9, 3&' 1>D9ά &9&#έ+"/&' B2 /( Aί%655& /B9 #>%&3'15έ9B9. N '1(++(.ί& DB+ί2 1>99"9ό616 A"9 1>9".ά,"/&' 5",'1/(.(ί616 /62 1>%%(,'3ή2 ">65"+ί&2. G'& 9& (A6,68(ύ5" 1" 5",'1/(.(ί616 /62 1>%%(,'3ή2 ">65"+ί&2 ό/&9 (' &.(#ά1"'2 /(> "9ό2 ".6+"άK(>9 /69 ">65"+ί& /(> ά%%(> &.&'/"ί/&' 1>9/(9'15ό2 3&' &5('@&ί"2 A"15"ύ1"'2. )& "5.όA'& 1/69 &."%">8έ+B16 /(> "5.(+ί(>.(> ","ί+(>9 (' 8',ό5"9"2 (5άA"2 1/'2 A'ά#(+"2 Dώ+"2, &%%ά 3&' (' &%%6%".'A+ά1"'2.(>.+(3&%"ί 6 &."%">8έ+B16 /(> "5.(+ί(> 5έ1B /B9 5"/&@(%ώ9 1/(>2 ό+(>2 "5.(+ί(> "ί9&' 3&' ( %ό,(2.(> 6 10

11 &."%">8έ+B16 /(> "5.(+ί(>.+(DB+ά 5έ1B A'"89ώ9 8"15ώ9 3&' 1>9"+,&1'ώ9, ό.b2 6 G"9'3ή =>5#B9ί&,'& /(>2 7&15(ύ2 3&' /( *5.ό+'( (GATT) ή.'(.+ό1#&/& ( <&,3ό15'(2 F+,&9'15ό2 *5.(+ί(> (<F*). *.ί &9/'3ό +ό%(.&ίk(>9 3&' A'5"+"ί2 A'&3+&/'3έ2 1>5#B9ί"2, ή.(%>5"+"ί2."+'#"+"'&3έ2 1>5#B9ί"2 ό.b2 ('."+'(Dέ2 "%">8έ+(> "5.(+ί(> (EFTA, NAFTA) 3&' (' /"%B9"'&3έ2 "9ώ1"'2 ό.b2 6 ** D 9$%'ό#+"(. D8%$6"#+ό.!+/(8ί(< (9D!). P"/ά /(9 A"ύ/"+( <&,3ό15'( <ό%"5(, 3&' /69 A>1ά+"1/6 A'"89ή "5."'+ί& /(> 5"1(.(%έ5(>, >.ή+c&9.(%>5"+"ί2 A'&.+&,5&/"ύ1"'2,'& /6 A65'(>+,ί& /+'ώ9 A'"89ώ9 ('3(9(5'3ώ9 (+,&9'15ώ9,'& /( 1>9/(9'15ό /62.(%'/'3ή2 1/& A'"89ή2 9(5'15&/'3ά K6/ή5&/&, /6 A'"89ή &9&1>,3+ό/616 3&' &9ά./>C6 3&' /( A'"89έ2 "5.ό+'(. F' (+,&9'15(ί.(> 1>5#B9ή863" 9& A65'(>+,68(ύ9 ή/&9 /( 7'"89έ2 S(5'15&/'3ό )&5"ί( (7S)), 6 <&,3ό15'& )+ά."k&,'& /69 H9&1>,3+ό/616 3&' /69 H9ά./>C6 (<&,3ό15'& )+ά."k&) 3&' ( 7'"89ή2 F+,&9'15ό2 *5.(+ί(> (7F*). *9ώ (' Aύ(.+ώ/(' (+,&9'15(ί A65'(>+,ή863&9 ά5"1& (8& "C"/ά1(>5" /( +ό%( /(>2 1" ".ό5"9& 3"#ά%&'&), 6 A65'(>+,ί& /(> 7'"89(ύ2 F+,&9'15(ύ *5.(+ί(> 3&8>1/έ+61",'&."+'11ό/"+& &.ό."9ή9/& D+ό9'&, %ό,b.(%'/'3ώ9 &9/'A+ά1"B9, 3>+ίB2 1/'2 N<H. )"%'3ά ( (+,&9'15ό2 &>/ό2 A65'(>+,ή863" /( 1995, 5" /69 ".B9>5ί& -,.)ό0+"*' (;.,%"0+ό' E+:*;ί*6 (<F*),."9ή9/& D+ό9'& 5"/ά /69 &+D'3ή 1>5#B9ί&,'& /6 A65'(>+,ί& /(>. ΉA6 ό5b2 &.ό /( 1947, 5ί& (5άA& 23 DB+ώ9 "ίd&9 C"3'9ή1"' A'&.+&,5&/"ύ1"'2,'& /69 &."%">8έ+B16 /(> A'"89(ύ2 "5.(+ί(> 3&' /6 5"ίB16 /(>.+(1/&/">/'15(ύ 3ά/B &.ό έ9&.+(1b+'9ό 1ύ9(%( 3&9ό9B9,9B1/ό B2 A#%")ή F6+58%ί,.",?*6'!,0+*ύ' ),"?* E+:ό;"* (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ή GATT). *.'1ή5B2 6 GATT ή/&9 5ί& A'"89ή2 1>5#B9ί& 3&' όd' έ9&2 A'"89ή2 (+,&9'15ό2. F' Dώ+"2.(> 5"/"ίD&9 1" &>/ή (9(5άK(9/&9 +έ;4?4' 06+58%ί,' 3&' ό=" +έ34. =/69.+άC6 6 GATT %"'/(>+,(ύ1" B2 A'"89ή2 (+,&9'15ό2 5" 5ί& 5ό9'56,+&55&/"ί& 1/6 G"9"ύ6, 1/69 (.(ί& ό%(' &9&#έ+(9/&9 B2 N GATT. O <&,3ό15'(2 F+,&9'15ό2 *5.(+ί(> (<F*).(> /6 A'&AέD863" έd"' /6 ίa'& %(,'3ή 5" &>/ή9. Yό%(2 /(> "ί9&' 9& B8ή1"' /69.&,3ό15'& ('3(9(5ί&.+(2 /( "%"ύ8"+( "5.ό+'(, 5" Aύ( /+ό.(>2. F.+ώ/(2 "ί9&' 9& B8ή1"'.+(2 1/&A'&3ή 5"ίB16 /B9 5έ/+B9.+(1/&/">/'15(ύ.&,3(15ίB2 (5έ1B /62 A'&A'3&1ί&2 /B9 %",ό5"9b9 #+:*;")ώ%.ύ;8%), 3&' ( A"ύ/"+(2 9& "5.(Aί1"' /69 ".&9&#(+ά 5έ/+B9.+(1/&/">/'15(ύ /& (.(ί& έd(>9 ",3&/&%"'#8"ί (5έ1B /62 A'&A'3&1ί&2 /B9 %",ό5"9b9 2#0+#ύ0#8%). N A'&A'3&1ί& /B9 2#0+#ύ0#8% 1/69 (>1ί& "5.(AίK"' /69 ".&9&#(+ά 5έ/+B9.+(1/&/">/'15(ύ,'& /& (.(ί& έd"' ήa6 1>5#B968"ί 6 5"ίB1ή /(>2. G'&.&+άA"',5&, ό/&9 έ9&2 1>9/"%"1/ή2,'& /(>2 A&15(ύ2 5'&2 Dώ+&2 "ί9&' A"15">5έ9(2, 6 Dώ+& 1/69 (>1ί& έd"' A"15">/"ί 9& 569 /(9 &>Cή1"' 1/( 5έ%%(9. )( 1ύ9(%( 1D"Aό9 /B9 A&15ώ9 1/(9 &9&./>,5έ9( 3ό15( "ί9&' A"15">5έ9(, "9ώ /( ίa'( 1>5@&ί9"','&."+ί.(> /& /+ί& /έ/&+/& /B9 A&15ώ9 1/(9 &9&./>11ό5"9( 3ό15(. 11

12 *.'.%έ(9 /B9 A"15"ύ1"B9,'& /(>2 A&15(ύ2 /( 1ύ1/65& GATT-<F*,"9'3ά.+(1.&8"ί 9& "5.(AίK"' 3&' /& 56 A&15(%(,'3ά "5.όA'& 1/( "%"ύ8"+( "5.ό+'(. *C&,B,'3έ2 ".'A(/ή1"'2 A"9 ".'/+έ.(9/&', 5" 5ί& 5",ά%6 "C&ί+"16. )'2 "C&,B,έ2 &,+(/'3ώ9.+(Lό9/B9,,'& /'2 (.(ί"2 ".έ5"9&9 9& "C&'+"8(ύ9 (' N<H, 1/'2 &+D'3έ2 A'&.+&,5&/"ύ1"'2 /62 GATT, 3&' /'2 (.(ί"2 "35"/&%%"ύ863" 6 *>+B.&L3ή Έ9B16. *.'.%έ(9, /( 1ύ1/65& GATT-<F* &.&,(+"ύ"',"9'3ά /69 "'1&,B,ή 9έB9.(1(1/ώ1"B9 1/'2 "'1&,B,έ2, έ9& 5έ/+(.(> '1/(+'3ά D+61'5(.('(ύ9.(%ύ (' N<H. Sέ"2.(1(1/ώ1"'2 1/'2 "'1&,B,έ2,"9'3ά &.&,(+"ύ9/&', "3/ό2 &9.+ό3"'/&','&.+(1B+'9ά 5έ/+&.+(3"'5έ9(> 9& &9/'5"/B.'1/(ύ9 (' %",ό5"9"2 2",?,;,=έ'?4',.*;ά', 3ά/'.(> (>1'&1/'3ά 165&ί9"' &.ό/(56 &ύc616 /B9 "'1&,B,ώ9 1" έ9& 3%άA( 6 (.(ί& &."'%"ί /69 ύ.&+c6 /(> 3%άA(> 1" 5ί& Dώ+&. F' #+:*;")*ί.ύ;*" "ί9&' A'&A'3&1ί"2 1ύ5#B9& 5" /'2 (.(ί"2 5ί& 5",ά%6 (5άA& DB+ώ9 1>5#B9(ύ9 9& C"3'9ή1(>9 (+,&9B5έ9"2 A'&.+&,5&/"ύ1"'2,'& 5"'ώ1"'2 A&15ώ9 3&' ά%%b9 5έ/+B9 &."%">8έ+B162 /(> "5.(+ί(>. F3/ώ /έ/('(',ύ+(' έd(>9 (%(3%6+B8"ί &.ό /( F'.+ώ/('.έ9/",ύ+(' /62 GATT "ίd&9 /6 5(+#ή.&+ά%%6%B9 A'5"+ώ9 A'&.+&,5&/"ύ1"B9,'& /6 5"ίB16 /B9 A&15ώ9. F έ3/(2,ύ+(2,,9b1/ό2 B2.ύ;*' Kennedy, (%(3%6+ώ863" /( &' 3&/έ%6C" 1/6 5"ίB16 /B9 A&15ώ9 3&/ά 50% 1" ό%"2 Dώ+"2, 5" /69 "C&ί+"16 1>,3"3+'5έ9B9 3%άAB9. N 5έ16 5"ίB16 /B9 A&15ώ9, %ό,b /B9 "C&'+έ1"B9, ή/&9 35%. F έ@a(5(2,ύ+(2, (.ύ;*'?*6 Gό)6*, (%(3%6+ώ863" /( &' (Aή,61" 1"."+&'/έ+B 5"ίB16 /B9 A&15ώ9, &%%ά 3&' 1/69 3&8'έ+B16 3BAί3B9 1>5."+'#(+ά2 1D"/'3ά 5" /& 56 A&15(%(,'3ά "5.όA'&, ό.b2 (' "8"%(ύ1'('."+'(+'15(ί 1/'2 "'1&,B,έ2. F ό,a((2,ύ+(2 (%(3%6+ώ863" /( 1994 (.ύ;*'?4' (6;*6.ά4') 3&' 3&/έ%6C" &9ά5"1& 1/& ά%%& 1/69."+&'/έ+B 5"ίB16 /B9 A&15ώ9, 1/69 5"ίB16 /62.+(1/&1ί&2 1/& &,+(/'3ά.+(Lό9/&, /( +(>D'15ό 3&' /'2 A65ό1'"2.+(5ή8"'"2, 3&8ώ2 3&' 1/6 A65'(>+,ί& /(> <&,3ό15'(> F+,&9'15(ύ *5.(+ί(>. F /"%">/&ί(2 (έ9&/(2),ύ+(2, ( (.(ί(2 1/69 (>1ί& έd"' 5ά%%(9 3&/&++"ύ1"' DB+ί2 1>5#B9ί& "ί9&' ( %",ό5"9(2.ύ;*'?4' H?ό=,,.(> C"3ί961" /( &' έb2 1ή5"+& A"9 έd"' (%(3%6+B8"ί. F' 1>5#B9ί"2 /62 GATT 3&' /(> <&,3ό15'(> F+,&9'15(ύ *5.(+ί(> (<F*) "ί9&' "3/"/&5έ9& 3&'.(%ύ.%(3& 3"ί5"9&, "."'Aή "ί9&' 9(5'3ά 3"ί5"9&.(> 3&%ύ./(>9 έ9& ">+ύ #ά15& A+&1/6+'(/ή/B9. H1D(%(ύ9/&' 5" /6,"B+,ί&, /69 3%B1/(V#&9/(>+,ί& 3&' /& "ίa6 έ9a>162, /'2 /+ά."k"2, /'2 /6%".'3('9B9ί"2, /'2 3>@"+96/'3έ2.+(5ή8"'"2, 3&' /69 &1#ά%"'& /B9.+(Lό9/B9, 3&9(9'15(ύ2 >,'"'9ή2 /+(#ί5b9, /69.9">5&/'3ή 'A'(3/61ί&, 3&'.(%%ά ά%%&. H%%ά 5'& 1"'+ά &.ό &+Dέ2 A'&/+έD(>9 ό%( /( 1ύ9(%( /B9 ",,+ά#b9 &>/ώ9. H>/έ2 (' &+Dέ2 &.(/"%(ύ9 /( 8"5έ%'( /(>.(%>5"+(ύ2 "5.(+'3(ύ 1>1/ή5&/(2. =ύ5#b9& 5" /'2 &+Dέ2 &>/έ2, /( A'"89έ2 1ύ1/65& 1>9&%%&,ώ9 8&.+έ."' 9& D&+&3/6+ίK"/&' &.ό, I:*60ί,!",);ί0#8% -!ά8" Dώ+& 8&.+έ."' 9& &.(#"ύ,"' /'2 A'&3+ί1"'2 5"/&Cύ /B9 "5.(+'3ώ9 "/&ί+b9 /62 (Aί9(9/ά2 /(>2 "Cί1(> 3&8"1/ώ2 «.%έ(9 ">9((ύ5"9(> 12

13 3+ά/(>2" ή 3&8"1/ώ2 <*!) 3&' A"9.+έ."' 9& 3ά9"' A'&3+ί1"'2 5"/&Cύ /B9 A'3ώ9 /62 3&' /B9 Cέ9B9.+(Lό9/B9, >.6+"1'ώ9 ή >.63όB9 (.&+έd(9/ά2 /(>2 ""89'3ή 5"/&D"ί+'16" ) J#.,3ύ?#;4 E3#6$#;ί, - )& "5.όA'& 1/'2 1>9&%%&,έ2.+έ."' 9& 5"'ώ9(9/&' 5έ1B A'&.+&,5&/"ύ1"B9 -;*@3#K"+ό?4?, - F' &%%(A&.έ2 "/&'+"ί"2, (' "."9A>/έ2 3&' (' 3>@"+9ή1"'2 8&.+έ."' 9& ό/' (' "5.(+'3(ί #+&,5(ί (1>5."+'%&5@&9(5έ9B9 /B9 A&15ώ9 3&' /B9 56 A&15(%(,'3ώ9 #+&,5ώ9) A"9 8& &>Cά9(9/&' &>8&ί+"/&. F' A&15(%(,'3(ί 1>9/"%"1/έ2 3&' (' A"15"ύ1"'2,'& /( ά9(',5& /62 "1B/"+'3ή2 &,(+ά2 1/&.%&ί1'& /(> <F*. I%?,.8%"0?")ό?4?, - 4& &.(8&++ύ9"' /'2 «άa'3"2».+&3/'3έ2, ό.b2 (' "C&,B,'3έ2 ".'A(/ή1"'2 3&' 9/ά5.'9,3.+(Lό9/B9 1" /'5έ2 3ά/B /(> 3ό1/(>2,'& &ύc616 /(> 5"+'Aί(> /62 &,(+ά2. -#;"00ό?#;, *5έ34.",?"' 3".ό?#;*,%#:?6.+έ%#' =ώ;#' - Aί9(9/ά2 /(>2."+'11ό/"+( D+ό9( 9&.+(1&+5(1/(ύ9, 5",&%ύ/"+6 ">"%'Cί&, 3&' "'A'3ά.+(9ό5'&. F <F* B2 5"/"Cέ%'C6 /62 GATT έd"'.(%%ά 3('9ά 165"ί& 5" &>/ή9. O1/ό1(, έd"' &+5(A'ό/6/"2 3&' 1/(9 /(5έ& /B9 >.6+"1'ώ9, 3ά/'.(> A"9 "ίd" 6 GATT. G'&.&+άA"',5& ( <F* "ί9&' >."ύ8>9(2,'& /&.9">5&/'3ά A'3&'ώ5&/&, "9ώ "ί9&' &+5όA'(2 3&','& /6 2"#6$έ?404 2"#%έC#8%.(> &9&3ύ./(>9 1/( A'"89έ2 "5.ό+'(, DB+ί2 ό5b2 9& 5.(+"ί ( ίa'(2 9& ".'@ά%%"' 3>+ώ1"' (1"+;#"$'έ.!+/(8"'έ. E<+F&6ί3. *3/ό2 &.ό /'2 A'"89"ί2 1>5#B9ί"2 1/&.%&ί1'& /62 GATT 3&' /(> <F*, 1/'2 (.(ί"2 A"9 ".'/+έ.(9/&' A'&3+ί1"'2 5"/&Cύ DB+ώ9 1/69 ά+16 /B9 "5.(AίB9 1/( A'"89έ2 "5.ό+'(, >.ά+d(>9 3&' (' %",ό5"9"2 :;*?"+40",)έ' #+:*;")έ' 06+58%ί#' (Preferential Trading Agreements PTA) 5"/&Cύ (5άAB9 DB+ώ9. G"9'3ά (' 3&9ό9"2 /62 GATT 3&' /(> 1/69 &+Dή /62 &.(>1ί&2 A'&3+ί1"B9, A6%&Aή 3ά8" Dώ+&.+έ."' 9& &.(#"ύ,"' A'&3+ί1"'2 5"/&Cύ /B9 "5.(+'3ώ9 /62 "/&ί+b9. O1/ό1(, A'&3+ί1"'2 ".'/+έ.(9/&' "5.(+'3έ2 1>5#B9ί"2, ό/&9 &>/έ2 1>9".ά,(9/&'.%ή+6 ά+16 /B9 A&15ώ9 3&' /B9 ά%%b9 "5.(+'3ώ9."+'(+'15ώ9 5"/&Cύ /B9 DB+ώ9.(> 5"/έD(>9 1/6 1>5#B9ί&. F'.+(/'561'&3έ2 "5.(+'3έ2 1>5#B9ί"2 1>9ή8B2 %&5@ά9(>9 5ί& &.ό Aύ( 5(+#έ2. -#;"*=έ' #3#6$έ;*6 #+:*;ί*6 (Free Trade Areas), 3&'?#38%#",)έ' #%ώ0#"' (Customs Unions). F'."+'(Dέ2 "%">8έ+(> "5.(+ί(> "ί9&' (5άA"2 DB+έ2.(> έd(>9 3&/&+,ή1"' /(>2 5"/&Cύ /(>2 A&15(ύ2, &%%ά 1/'2 (.(ί"2 6 3ά8" Dώ+& (+ίk"' /(>2 A'3(ύ2 /62 A&15(ύ2 1" 1Dέ16 5" /'2 >.ό%('."2 Dώ+"2, "9ώ (' /"%B9"'&3έ2 "9ώ1"'2 "ί9&' (5άA"2 DB+ώ9.(> έd(>9 ".'.%έ(9 3('9(ύ2 A&15(ύ2 &.έ9&9/' 1/(9 >.ό%('.( 3ό15(. 13

14 N *>+B.&L3ή Έ9B16 "ί9&' /( &+Dέ/>.(.&+άA"',5& /"%B9"'&3ή2 έ9b162. ΈD"' όd' 5ό9( 3&/&+,ή1"' /(> A&15(ύ2 3&' /& ά%%& "5.όA'& 1/( "5.ό+'( 5"/&Cύ /B9 5"%ώ9 /62, &%%ά έd"' 1>5#B9ή1"' 3&' 1" 3('9(ύ2 A&15(ύ2 &.έ9&9/' 1/(9 >.ό%('.( 3ό15(. H.ό /69 ά%%6, 6 NAFTA, 6."+'(Dή "%">8έ+(> "5.(+ί(> /62 Z(+"ί(> H5"+'3ή2, 6 (.(ί&."+'%&5@ά9"' /'2 N<H, /(9!&9&Aά 3&' /( P"C'3ό, 1>9".ά,"/&' 3&/ά+,616 /B9 A&15ώ9 5"/&Cύ /B9 /+'ώ9 &>/ώ9 DB+ώ9, &%%ά 3ά8" 5ί& &.ό &>/έ2 A'&/6+"ί /( A'3&ίB5& 9& ".'%έ,"' 5ό96 /62 /(>2 A&15(ύ2.(> ".'@ά%%"' 1".+(Lό9/& &.ό /(9 >.ό%('.( 3ό15(. N ".'%(,ή "ί9&' 1/&.%&ί1'& /B9 3&9ό9B9 /(> <F*. *9ώ 6,"9'3">5έ96 &."%">8έ+B16 /(> "5.(+ί(> 8"B+"ί/&' /69 ">65"+ί& ό%b9 /B9 DB+ώ9, ('.+(/'561'&3έ2 "5.(+'3έ2 1>5#B9ί"2 A"9 ό/' (A6,(ύ9 1" &>/ό /( &.(/έ%"15&. H>/ό 1>5@&ί9"' A'ό/' έd(>9 Aύ( "'Aώ9 ".'./ώ1"'2. H.ό /6 5ί&, &>Cά9(>9 /(9 ό,3( /(> "5.(+ί(> 5"/&Cύ /B9 DB+ώ9.(> 3&/&+,(ύ9 /(>2 5"/&Cύ /(>2 A&15(ύ2. N ".ί./b16 &>/ή 3&%"ί/&' 24+"*6;.ί, #+:*;ί*6 (trade creation), 3&' ό.b2 έd(>5" A"' ".&9"'%%65έ9& 8"B+"ί/&',"9'3ό/"+& ".B#"%ή2. H.ό /69 ά%%6, 5ί&.+(/'561'&3ή "5.(+'3ή 1>5#B9ί& >.(3&8'1/ά /( "5.ό+'( /62 3ά8" Dώ+&2 5" /+ί/"2 Dώ+"2.+(2 ό#"%(2 /(> "5.(+ί(> 5" /'2 Dώ+"2.(> 5"/έD(>9 1/69.+(/'561'&3ή "5.(+'3ή 1>5#B9ί&. N ".ί./b16 &>/ή 3&%"ί/&' #)?;*:ή #+:*;ί*6 (trade diversion), 3&8ώ2 5έ+(2 /(> &5('@&ί& ".B#"%(ύ2 "5.(+ί(> /62 3ά8" Dώ+&2 5" /+ί/"2 Dώ+"2 "3/+έ."/&' 1" "5.ό+'( 5"/&Cύ /B9 DB+ώ9.(> 5"/έD(>9 1/69.+(/'561'&3ή "5.(+'3ή 1>5#B9ί&. N "3/+(.ή /(> "5.(+ί(> A"9 "ί9&' ".B#"%ή2, 3&8ώ2 (#"ί%"/&' 1/'2 1/+"@%ώ1"'2.(>.+(3&%"ί 6.+(/'561'&3ή 1>5#B9ί&.!&/ά 1>9έ."'&, "9ώ "ί9&' C"3ά8&+( ό/' 5ί&,"9'3">5έ96 5"ίB16 ή 3&/ά+,616 /B9 A&15ώ9 "ί9&' ".B#"%ή2,'& ό%(>2, 5ί& 5"ίB16 ή 3&/ά+,616 1/&.%&ί1'& 5'&2.+(/'561'&3ή2 "5.(+'3ή2 1>5#B9ί&2 5.(+"ί 9& (A6,ή1"' 1" 3ό1/(2 &.ό /69 "3/+(.ή /(> "5.(+ί(>.(> 9& >."+@&ί9"' /& (#έ%6 &.ό /6 A65'(>+,ί& "5.(+ί(>. Έ9& /έ/('(.&+άa"',5& #&ί9"/&' ό/' "ί9&' 6 Mercosur, 5ί&."+'(Dή "%">8έ+(> "5.(+ί(> 5"/&Cύ /"11ά+B9 DB+ώ9 /62 S(/ί(> H5"+'3ή2, /62 H+,"9/'9ή2, /62 Z+&K'%ί&2, /62 F>+(>,(>ά62 3&' /62 <&+&,(>ά62. N Mercosur A65'(>+,ή863" /( &' (Aή,61" 1" 165&9/'3ή ".έ3/&16 /(> "5.(+ί(> 5"/&Cύ /B9 /"11ά+B9 &>/ώ9 DB+ώ9. O1/ό1(, /( 5",&%ύ/"+( 5έ+(2 &>/ή2 /62 ".έ3/&162 #&ί9"/&' ό/' έ,'9" /(> "5.(+ί(> /(>2 5" /+ί/"2 Dώ+"2, 5" &.(/έ%"15& /& 1>9(%'3ά &.(/"%έ15&/& 9& "ί9&' 5ά%%(9 &+96/'3ά. =" &>/ό /( 1>5.έ+&15& 3&/έ%6C" /(>%άd'1/(9 5ί& 5"%έ/6 /62 <&,3ό15'&2 )+ά."k&2 /( 1996, 6 (.(ί& ό5b2 ό/&9 A65(1'"ύ863" "ίd" %(,(3+'8"ί, %ό,b /B9 A'&5&+/>+'ώ9 /B9 DB+ώ9 /62 Mercosur, 3&' 'A'&ί/"+& /62 Z+&K'%ί&2.(> #&ί9"/&' ό/' ή/&9 6 Dώ+&.(> 3>+ίB2 B#"%ή863" &.ό /6 A65'(>+,ί& &>/ή2 /62 Kώ962 "%">8έ+(> "5.(+ί(>. G'&.&+άA"',5&, 6 &>/(3'96/(@'(56D&9ί& /62 Z+&K'%ί&2, 6 (.(ί& A'"89ώ2 A"9 ή/&9 'A'&ί/"+& &9/&,B9'1/'3ή, %ό,b /62.+(/'561'&3ή2 &>/ή2 "5.(+'3ή2 1>5#B9ί&2, &.έ3/61" 5ί& 5",ά%6 ".'.%έ(9 &,(+ά 1/69 H+,"9/'9ή, >.(3&8'1/ώ9/&2 /'2 "'1&,B,έ2 #869ό/"+B9 3&' 3&%ύ/"+B9 &>/(3'9ή/B9 &.ό ά%%"2 Dώ+"2 ό.b2 6 [&.B9ί&, 6 *>+ώ.6 3&' (' N<H. H>/ό "ί9&' έ9& &./ό.&+άa"',5& "3/+(.ή2 /(> "5.(+ί(>.(> 5.(+"ί 9& A65'(>+,ή1"' 5ί&.+(/'561'&3ή "5.(+'3ή 1>5#B9ί&. 14

15 11.6 E<+/38ά#+$1$ H.ό /69 &9ά%>16 /(> 3"#&%&ί(> &>/(ύ 3&/&%ήC&5" 1/& &3ό%(>8& 1>5."+ά15&/& 1D"/'3ά 5" /( +ό%( /B9 "+,&%"ίb9 3&' /B9 8"15ώ9 /62 A'"89(ύ2 "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2, 3&8ώ2 3&','& /6 165&1ί& /(> "%"ύ8"+(> "5.(+ί(>,'& /69.&,3ό15'& ('3(9(5ί&. G'& 5ί& 5'3+ή ('3(9(5ί&, 6 (.(ί& A"9 5.(+"ί 9& ".6+"ά1"' /(>2 ό+(>2 "5.(+ί(> /62, /( 1>9ό%'3( 3('9B9'3ό &.(/έ%"15& &.ό /69 ".'@(%ή A&15ώ9 "ί9&' &+96/'3ό, 3&8ώ2 (' A&15(ί.+(3&%(ύ9 ",Dώ+'"2 1/+"@%ώ1"'2 1/69.&+&,B,ή 3&' /69 3&/&9ά%B16, (' (.(ί"2 5"'ώ9(>9 /69 3('9B9'3ή ">65"+ί&. )& (#έ%6 /B9 ",Dώ+'B9.&+&,B,ώ9 "'1&,(5έ9B9.+(Lό9/B9 3&8ώ2 3&' /& ".'.%έ(9 A65ό1'& έ1(a& A"9 ".&+3(ύ9,'& 9& 3&%ύM(>9 /'2 &.ώ%"'"2 /B9 3&/&9&%B/ώ9. N ".'@(%ή "9ό2 "'1&,B,'3(ύ A&15(ύ &.ό 5ί& 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί& (A6,"ί /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /62 3&' έ/1' 5"'ώ9"' /6 A'"89ή /'5ή /B9 "'1&,(5έ9B9 /62. G'& /6 Dώ+&.(> ".'@ά%%"' /( A&15ό, /( ό#"%(2 &.ό /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> 5"/+'άK"' /( 3ό1/(2 /B9 ",Dώ+'B9 1/+"@%ώ1"B9.(> A65'(>+,(ύ9/&', 3&' "9A"D(5έ9B2 ( "'1&,B,'3ό2 A&15ό2 9& "ί9&' 1>9(%'3ά ".B#"%ή2,'& /6 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί&.(> /(9 ".'@ά%%"'. O1/ό1(, 6 ".'@(%ή "9ό2 "'1&,B,'3(ύ A&15(ύ 8ί,"' /(9 >.ό%('.( 3ό15(, 3&8ώ2 (A6,"ί 1" D"'+(/έ+">16 /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(> /(> >.(%(ί.(> 3ό15(>, 3&' 5.(+"ί 9& (A6,ή1"' 1" &9/'1/&85'1/'3ή &ύc616 /B9 "'1&,B,'3ώ9 A&15ώ9 3&' 1/(9 >.ό%('.( 3ό15(. H9/ί1/('D"2 1/+"@%ώ1"'2, 3&' 5ά%'1/& 5",&%ύ/"+"2.+(3&%(ύ9 3&' (' "C&,B,'3έ2 ".'A(/ή1"'2, (' (.(ί"2 A"9 έd(>9 3&9 /(.%"(9έ3/65& /62.+(1.ό+'162 A65(1ίB9 "1όAB9, ή /(.%"(9έ3/65& /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(>,'& 5ί& 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί&. F' "C&,B,'3έ2 ".'A(/ή1"'2.+(3&%(ύ9 ".'.%έ(9 A65ό1'"2 A&.ά9"2 3&',,'& /69."+ί./B16 5'&2 5",ά%62 ('3(9(5ί&2, (A6,(ύ9 3&' 1" ".'A"ί9B16 /B9 ό+b9 "5.(+ί(>. H+96/'3έ2 ".'./ώ1"'2 3&' 1/+"@%ώ1"'2 A65'(>+,(ύ9 3&' ('.(1(1/ώ1"'2 /B9 "'1&,B,ώ9, (' "8"%(ύ1'('."+'(+'15(ί /B9 "C&,B,ώ9 3&' ά%%& "+,&%"ί& /62 "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2. <&+ά /& 1>5."+ά15&/& &>/ά, %ί,"2 "ί9&' (' Dώ+"2.(> A"9 D+61'5(.('(ύ9."+'(+'15(ύ2 1/( A'"89έ2 "5.ό+'(. =" /"%'3ή &9ά%>16, 6 "5.(+'3ή.(%'/'3ή 1/'2 A'ά#(+"2 Dώ+"2 3&8(+ίK"/&' &.ό.&+ά,(9/"2.(> 1D"/ίK(9/&' 5" /6 A'&9(5ή /(> "'1(Aή5&/(2. <(%%έ2 #(+έ2,.&+ά /6 5"ίB16 /62 1>9(%'3ή2 ">65"+ί&2.(>.+(3&%(ύ9, >'(8"/(ύ9/&'.(%'/'3έ2 5" 1/όD( /6 1/ή+'C6 1>,3"3+'5έ9B9 3('9B9'3ώ9 (5άAB9, &3ό56 3&' &9 &>/έ2 ('.(%'/'3έ2 %"'/(>+,(ύ9 /62 1>9(%'3ή2 "89'3ή2 ">65"+ί&2. Έ9& /έ/('(.&+άa"',5& "ί9&' 6!('9ή H,+(/'3ή <(%'/'3ή /62 *>+B.&L3ή2 Έ9B162, &%%ά 3&'.(%%έ2 ά%%"2.(%'/'3έ2.+(1/&/">/'15(ύ.&,3(15ίb2. 15

16 F' ('3(9(5(%ό,(' "C&3(%(>8(ύ9 9& >.(1/6+ίK(>9 ό/' /( "%"ύ8"+( "5.ό+'( "ί9&',"9'3ά B#έ%'5(,'& /69.&,3ό15'& ('3(9(5ί&. /(>2 ".'D"ί+65& "ί9&' ό/' /( A'"89έ2 "5.ό+'(.+(B8"ί /69 ('3(9(5'3ή &.(/"%"15&/'3ό/6/&.+(2 ό#"%(2 ό%b9 /B9 DB+ώ9.(> 5"/έD(>9 1" &>/ό, "9ώ /& "5.όA'& 1/( "5.ό+'( ό.b2 (' A&15(ί 3&' /& >.ό%('.& "+,&%"ί& /62 "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2 A65'(>+,(ύ9 5"'ώ9(>9 /6 1>9(%'3ή ">65"+ί&. N &9ά%>16 5&2 >.(A"'39ύ"' ό/' /& "+,&%"ί& /62 "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2.+έ."' 9& D+61'5(.('(ύ9/&' 5" 5",ά%6 #"'Aώ, %ό,b /B9 1/+"@%ώ1"B9.(>.+(3&%(ύ9. G'&.&+άA"',5&, 5ί& 5",ά%6 ('3(9(5ί& 5.(+"ί 9& B#"%68"ί &.ό A&15(ύ2 3&' "C&,B,'3(ύ2 #ό+(>2, %ό,b /B9 ">5"9ώ9 ".'./ώ1"b9 /(>2 1/(>2 ό+(>2 "5.(+ί(>. O1/ό1(, 3'9A>9"ύ"' &.ό &9/'1/&85'1/'3ά 5έ/+& &.ό /(>2 &9/&,B9'1/έ2 /(>2, 5" &.(/έ%"15& &ύc616 /(>.&,3ό15'(>.+(1/&/">/'15(ύ 3&' 5"ίB16 /62 ">65"+ί&2,'& ό%(>2 (2ί34++, 563,)"0+έ%8%). \ό,b /B9 "CB/"+'3ώ9 ".'./ώ1"b9 /62 A'"89(ύ2 "5.(+'3ή2.(%'/'3ή2, 5"/ά /69 3&/&1/+(#'3ή "5."'+ί& /(> 5"1(.(%έ5(>, 6 &."%">8έ+B16 /(> "5.(+ί(>.+(Dώ+61" &.ό /( &' 5"/ά 5έ1B A'"89ώ9 8"15ώ9 3&' 1>9"+,&1'ώ9 (GATT 3&' <F*). F' A'"89"ί2 1>9"+,&1ί"2 &9/'5"/B.ίK(>9 /&.+(@%ή5&/& 1>9/(9'15(ύ.(> &9&3ύ./(>9 1" έ9& Kή/65& ό.(> ('.+B/(@(>%ί"2 5'&2 Dώ+&2 ".6+"άK(>9 /69 ">65"+ί& /B9 ά%%b9. *.ί &9/'3ό +ό%(.&ίk(>9 ('.+(/'561'&3έ2 "5.(+'3έ2 1>5#B9ί"2, ό.b2 ('."+'(Dέ2 "%">8έ+(> "5.(+ί(> 3&' (' /"%B9"'&3έ2 "9ώ1"'2. *9ώ 6,"9'3">5έ96 &."%">8έ+B16 /(> "5.(+ί(> 8"B+"ί/&' /69 ">65"+ί& ό%b9 /B9 DB+ώ9, ('.+(/'561'&3έ2 "5.(+'3έ2 1>5#B9ί"2 A"9 ό/' (A6,(ύ9 1" &>/ό /( &.(/έ%"15&. H>/ό 1>5@&ί9"' A'ό/' έd(>9 Aύ( "'Aώ9 ".'./ώ1"'2. H.ό /6 5ί&, &>Cά9(>9 /(9 ό,3( /(> "5.(+ί(> 5"/&Cύ /B9 DB+ώ9.(> 3&/&+,(ύ9 /(>2 5"/&Cύ /(>2 A&15(ύ2. N ".ί./b16 &>/ή 3&%"ί/&' 24+"*6;.ί, #+:*;ί*6 (trade creation), 3&' ό.b2 έd(>5" A"' ".&9"'%%65έ9& 8"B+"ί/&',"9'3ό/"+& ".B#"%ή2. H.ό /69 ά%%6, 5ί&.+(/'561'&3ή "5.(+'3ή 1>5#B9ί& >.(3&8'1/ά /( "5.ό+'( /62 3ά8" Dώ+&2 5" /+ί/"2 Dώ+"2.+(2 ό#"%(2 /(> "5.(+ί(> 5" /'2 Dώ+"2.(> 5"/έD(>9 1/69.+(/'561'&3ή "5.(+'3ή 1>5#B9ί&. N ".ί./b16 &>/ή 3&%"ί/&' #)?;*:ή #+:*;ί*6 (trade diversion), 3&8ώ2 5έ+(2 /(> &5('@&ί& ".B#"%(ύ2 "5.(+ί(> /62 3ά8" Dώ+&2 5" /+ί/"2 Dώ+"2 "3/+έ."/&' 1" "5.ό+'( 5"/&Cύ /B9 DB+ώ9.(> 5"/έD(>9 1/69.+(/'561'&3ή "5.(+'3ή 1>5#B9ί&. N "3/+(.ή /(> "5.(+ί(> A"9 "ί9&' ".B#"%ή2, 3&8ώ2 (#"ί%"/&' 1/'2 1/+"@%ώ1"'2.(>.+(3&%"ί 6.+(/'561'&3ή 1>5#B9ί&.!&/ά 1>9έ."'&, "9ώ "ί9&' C"3ά8&+( ό/' 5ί&,"9'3">5έ96 5"ίB16 ή 3&/ά+,616 /B9 A&15ώ9 "ί9&' ".B#"%ή2,'& ό%(>2, 5ί& 5"ίB16 ή 3&/ά+,616 1/&.%&ί1'& 5'&2.+(/'561'&3ή2 "5.(+'3ή2 1>5#B9ί&2 5.(+"ί 9& (A6,ή1"' 1" 3ό1/(2 &.ό /69 "3/+(.ή /(> "5.(+ί(>.(> 9& >."+@&ί9"' /& (#έ%6 &.ό /6 A65'(>+,ί& "5.(+ί(>. 16

17 7'ά,+&55& 11.1 *.'./ώ1"'2 *9ό2 *'1&,B,'3(ύ 7&15(ύ 1" 5'& P'3+ή F'3(9(5ί& Τιμή P Κέρδος Παραγωγών =a Απώλεια Καταναλωτών = a+b+c+d Έσοδα από Δασμό = c Κοινωνικό Αποτέλεσμα=-(b+d) Προσφορά S P T a b c d P W Ζήτηση D Q W S Q T S Q T D Q W D Ποσότητα Q 17

18 7'ά,+&55& 11.2 *.'./ώ1"'2 *9ό2 *'1&,B,'3(ύ 7&15(ύ 1" 5'& P",ά%6 F'3(9(5ί& Τιμή P Κέρδος Παραγωγών =a Απώλεια Καταναλωτών = a+b+c+d Έσοδα από Δασμό = c Όφελος από Βελτίωση Όρων Εμπορίου = e Κοινωνικό Αποτέλεσμα= e-(b+d) Προσφορά S P T a b c d P W P W' e Ζήτηση D Q W S Q T S Q T D Q W D Ποσότητα Q 18

19 7'ά,+&55& 11.3 *.'./ώ1"'2 P'&2 *C&,B,'3ή2 *.'Aό/6162 1" 5'& P'3+ή F'3(9(5ί& Τιμή P Κέρδος Παραγωγών =a+b+c Απώλεια Καταναλωτών = a+b Δαπάνη Επιδότησης = b+c+d Κοινωνικό Αποτέλεσμα=-(b+d) Προσφορά S P X a b c d P W Ζήτηση D Q X D Q W D Q W S Q X S Ποσότητα Q 19

20 7'ά,+&55& 11.4 *.'./ώ1"'2 P'&2 *C&,B,'3ή2 *.'Aό/6162 1" 5'& P",ά%6 F'3(9(5ί& Τιμή P Κέρδος Παραγωγών =a+b+c Απώλεια Καταναλωτών = a+b Δαπάνη Επιδότησης = b+c+d Κόστος από Επιδείνωση Όρων Εμπορίου = e Κοινωνικό Αποτέλεσμα=-(b+d+e) Προσφορά S P X a b c d P W P W' e Ζήτηση D Q X D Q W D Q W S Q X S Ποσότητα Q 20