Properties of Solutions
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- Μελίτη Κουβέλης
- 6 χρόνια πριν
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1 Properties of Solutions Solute is the substance that dissolves Solvent is the substance in which a solute dissolves Solution is homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure substances. In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent. Dilute Solution is a solution containing a relatively small quantity of solute as compared with the amount of solvent. Concentrated solution is a solution that has a relatively large amount of solute dissolved in it. Saturated Solutions: Maximum amount of a solute that dissolve in a solvent. Unsaturated Solutions: less than the maximum amount that can be dissolved Supersaturated Solution is a state of solution that contains more of the dissolved material than could be dissolved by the solvent under normal circumstances. Solubility is the maximum amount of the solute that can dissolve in a given amount of the solvent at a specified temperature. Aqueous Solution is a solution in which the solvent is water.
2 Table 1.1 Various Types of Solutions Solution Formation The intermolecular forces between solute and solvent particles must be strong enough to compete with those between solute particles and those between solvent particles. Three kinds of intermolecular interactions are involved in solution formation: 1. Solute solute interactions between solute particles must be overcome in order to disperse the solute particles through the solvent. 2. Solvent solvent interactions between solvent particles must be overcome to make room for the solute particles in the solvent. 3. Solvent solute interactions between solvent and solute particles occur as the particles mix. Fig 1.1 shows the formation process of NaCl solution. [Reprinted from: T. L. Brown, H. E. LEMay,B.E. Bursten, C. J. Murphy, P. M. Woodward, CHEMISTRY T H E C E N T R A L S C I E N C E, T W E L F T H E D I T I O N, ISBN ]
3 The Changes of energy in Solution There are three processes that affect the energetics of solution: 1. Separation of solute particles. Energy is required (Endothermic), ΔH Separation of solvent particles. Energy is required (Endothermic), ΔH New interactions between solute and solvent. Energy is not required (Exothermic), ΔH 3. [Reprinted from: T. L. Brown, H. E. LEMay,B.E. Bursten, C. J. Murphy, P. M. Woodward, CHEMISTRY T H E C E N T R A L S C I E N C E, T W E L F T H E D I T I O N, ISBN ]
4 Solubility Dissolution is a physical change you can get back the original solute by evaporating the solvent. If you can t, the substance didn t dissolve, it reacted عملية االذابه تكون تغير فيزيائي ويمكن الحصول على المذاب االصلي من المحلول بواسطه تبخير المذيب. اذا لم يتم الحصول على المذاب من عملية التبخير للمذيب فهذا يعني ان المذاب قد تفاعل كيميائيا مع المذيب. العوامل المؤثره على الذوبانية Factors Affecting Solubility.(المثل يذيب المثل ( like The cardinal rule of solubility is like dissolves Thus, it must use a polar solvent to dissolve a polar or ionic solute and a nonpolar solvent to dissolve a nonpolar solute. المذيب القطبي يذيب المذاب القطبي او االيوني والمذيب الغير قطبي يذيب المذاب الغير قطبي تأثير التركيب 1. Structure Effect The Solubility of vitamins A is different from the solubility of vitamins C. The reason for the differing solubility characteristics can be seen by comparing the structures of vitamins A and C (Fig. 1.2). Vitamin A, composed mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms that have similar electronegativities, is virtually nonpolar. This causes it to be soluble in nonpolar materials. On the other hand, vitamin C has many polar O H and C O bonds, making the molecule polar and thus water-soluble. تختلف ذوبانية مركب فيتامين ( أ ) عنها في مركب فيتامين )سي( ويعود السبب الى التركيب المختلف بين المركبين.في الغالب يشتمل فيتامين )ا( على ذرات الهيدروجين والكاربون التي تكون متشابهه في السالبية الكهربائية وبالتالي يصنف على انه غير قطبي وبالتالي فانه يذوب في المذيبات الغير قطبية. في حين يملك فيتامين )سي( روابط قطبية بين الكاربون واالكسجين وبين الهيدروجين واالكسجين التي تجعله جزيئ قطبي ويذوب في مذيب قطبي كالماء. Vitamin A Vitamin C FIG. 1.2 the molecular structures of vitamin A (nonpolar) and vitamin C (polar). [Reprinted from: T. L. Brown, H. E. LEMay,B.E. Bursten, C. J. Murphy, P. M. Woodward, CHEMISTRY T H E C E N T R A L S C I E N C E, T W E L F T H E D I T I O N, ISBN ]
5 Q. Predict whether each of the following substances is more likely to dissolve in the nonpolar solvent carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4 ) or in water: A) C 7 H 16 B) Na 2 SO 4 C)HCl D) I 2 تأير الضغط 2. Pressure Effect The solubility of liquids and solids does not change appreciably with pressure, whereas the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to its pressure. ليس هناك تاثير ملحوظ للضغط على ذوبانية المواد الصلبة والسائلة خاصتا في المذيبات السائلة بينما ذوبان الغاز في سائل يتناسب طرديا مع ضغطة. قانون هنري Henry s Law The amount of a gas dissolved in a solution is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the solution. كمية الغاز المذابة في كتلة معينة من السائل المذيب عند درجة حرارة معينة تتناسب طرديا مع الضغط الجزئي للغاز فوق السائل. FIG. 1.2 Effect of pressure on gas solubility. [Reprinted from: T. L. Brown, H. E. LEMay,B.E. Bursten, C. J. Murphy, P. M. Woodward, CHEMISTRY T H E C E N T R A L S C I E N C E, T W E L F T H E D I T I O N, ISBN ]
6 FIG. 1.3 The solubility of a gas in water is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. The solubilities are in millimoles per liter of solution. ذوبانية الغاز في الماء تكون ذات عالقة طردية مع ضغط الغاز الجزئي وحده الذوباانية في هذا الشكل ب Mmol/L of solution [Reprinted from: T. L. Brown, H. E. LEMay,B.E. Bursten, C. J. Murphy, P. M. Woodward, CHEMISTRY T H E C E N T R A L S C I E N C E, T W E L F T H E D I T I O N, ISBN ] قانون هنري Henry s Law C = k P C is the concentration of the dissolved ( تركيز الغاز او كمية الغاز المذابة( gas ثابت قانون constant. K is the Henry s law هنري P is the partial pressure of the gas. الضغط الجزئي للغاز Exercises The concentration of N 2 gas dissolved in water at 760 torr and 25 o C is 5.3x10-4 mol/l, partial pressure of N 2 gas is torr, so Henry constant equal The solubility of oxygen gas in water at 25 o C is g/l, when the partial pressure of O2 is 736 torr. What is new solubility in moles per liter when the partial pressure of O2 is 1.5 atm.?
7 تأثير درجة الحرارة.3 Temperature Effect Generally, the solubility of most solid solutes in water increases as the solution temperature increases. In contrast to solid solutes, the solubility of gases in water decreases with increasing temperature. بشكل عام تزداد ذوبانية المذابات الصلبة في ذوبانية الغازات في بأرتفاع درجة الحرارة. الماء بازدياد درجة الحرارة وعلى النقيض تقل, FIG. 1.4 Solubilities of some ionic compounds in water as a function of temperature. ذوبانية بعض المركبات االيونية في الماء عند درجات حرارة مختلفه FIG. 1.5 Solubilities of four gases in water as a function of temperature. ذوبانية اربع انواع من الغازات في الماء عند درجات حرارة مختلفة [Fig 1.4 and 1.5 reprinted from: T. L. Brown, H. E. LEMay,B.E. Bursten, C. J. Murphy, P. M. Woodward, CHEMISTRY T H E C E N T R A L S C I E N C E, T W E L F T H E D I T I O N, ISBN ] It can be seen that the solubility of Ce 2 (SO 4 ) 3 decreases with increasing temperature. That means that there is exception to the general rule. يالحظ ان ذوبانية ) 3 4 Ce 2 (SO تقل بزيادة درجة الحرارة وهذا يكون استثناء للقاعده العامة
8 Methods of expressing solution concentration بعض الطرق المستخدمة للتعبير عن تركيز المحاليل The concentration of a solution is the measure of how much solute and solvent there is. A solution is concentrated if it contains a large amount of solute, or dilute if contains a small amount. There are several ways of expressing the concentration of a solution. تركيز المحلول هو الكمية المقاسه مما يحتويه من مذاب ومذيب. المحلول المركز هو المحلول اللذي يحتوي كمية كبيرة من المذاب بينما المخفف هو المحلول اللذي يحتوي على كمية صغيره من المذاب. يوجد عده طرق للتعبير عن تراكيز المحاليل وهي كتالي : النسبة الوزنية للمذاب 1. Mass Percentage of solute The mass percentage of solute (sometimes called weight percent) is the percentage by mass of solute contained in a solution. هي النسبة الوزنية للمذاب في المحلول النسبة المئوية الوزنية للمذاب =) كتلة او وزن المذاب كتلة او وزن المحلول( 011 في حالة المحاليل ذات التراكيز المنخفضه جدا الوزنية لكل من اجزاء المليون يمكن التعبير عن تركيز المحلول بالنسبة Mass percentage of solute = (mass of solute mass of solution) x 10 6 A solution whose solute concentration is 1 ppm contains 1 g of solute for each million grams of solution or, equivalently, 1 mg of solute per kilogram of solution. المحلول المحتوي على تركيز 1 لجزء من المليون يحتوي على 1 جرام من المذاب في مليون جرام من المحلول او 1 ملي جرام من المذاب في كيلو جرام من المحلول
9 EXERCISE الموالرية 2. Molarity Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. هو عدد الموالت من المذاب في لتر من المحلول الموالرية = عدد موالت المذاب حجم المحلول بالتر
10 المواللية 3. Molality Molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. المواللية هي عدد الموالت من المذاب في كليو جرام من المذيب المواللية = عدد موالت المذاب وزن او كتلة المذيب )بالكيلو جرام( الكسر المولي 4. Mole Fraction The mole fraction is simply the moles of solute per moles of solution. هو النسبة بين عدد موالت المذاب الى العدد الكلي لموالت جميع المواد المكونة للمحلول بصيغة اخرى النسبة المئوية الحجمية.5 Volume percent هي حجم المذاب باللتر الموجود في مائه لتر من المحلول النسبة المئوية الحجمية للمذاب = ( حجم المذاب حجم المحلول( 011
11 EXERCISE
12 Colligative Properties الخواص التجميعية هي الخواص التي تعتمد على تركيز المذاب في المحلول او عدد جسيمات المذاب الموجوده في المحلول بغض النظر عن نوع المذاب. Colligative properties depend only on the number of solute particles present regardless of what kind. الخواص التجميعية للمحلول تكون خواص مترابطة ومجتمعة مع بعضها البعض وهي كمايلي: 1- االنخفاض في الضغط البخاري Vapor pressure lowering 2- االرتفاع في درجة الغليان Boiling point elevation Freezing point depression Osmotic pressure 3- االنخفاض في درجة التجمد 4- الضغط االسموزي االنخفاض في الضغط البخاري Vapor pressure lowering يطلق الضغط البخاري على الضغط الناتج من السوائل على الهواء الجوي نتيجة لهروب او تبخر جزيئات السائل وتصاعدها للهواء الجوي بمعنى يضغط السائل الهواء الجوي المجاور له بواسطه تبخر جزيئاته.
13 الضغط البخاري هو الضغط الذي تشكلة الجزيئات المتبخرة على الهواء الجوي جزيئات تتبخر وتهرب من المحلول عند اذابة مادة صلبة غير متطايرة الى السائل فان الضغط البخاري للسائل ينخفض وذلك بسبب ان جزيئات المادة الصلبة في السائل تجذب اليها جزيئات السائل وتنتشر جزيئا على السطح ومن ثم تعيق جزيئات السائل من التبخر او الهروب وبهذا ينخفض الضغط البخاري. باالضافة الى ذلك كمية المذيب السائل تنخفض بوجود المذاب. The presence of a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solvent. Because of solute-solvent intermolecular attraction, higher concentrations of nonvolatile solutes make it harder for solvent to escape to the vapor phase.
14 قد أوجد راؤلت عالقة بين االنخفاض النسبي في الضغط البخاري وعدد جسيمات المذاب الموجودة في المحلول. Raoult s Law راؤلت قانون االنخفاض النسبي في الضغط البخاري يتناسب طرديا مع عدد جسيمات المذاب في المحلول. Raoult s law can be described by the following equation: ΔP= P. X 2 ΔP= P -P X 2 = (P -P) P X 1 = n 1 (n 1 +n 2 ) X 2 = n 2 (n 1 +n 2 ) (P -P) P = n 2 (n 1 +n 2 ) P= الضغط البخاري للسائل النقي. = P الضغط البخار للمحلول. =ΔP االنخفاض في الضغط البخاري X= 1 الكسر المولي للمذيب = X 2 الكسر المولي للمذاب n= 1 عدد موالت المذيب = n 2 عدد موالت المذاب
15 Q. Calculate the vapor-pressure lowering of water when 5.67 g of glucose, C 6 H 12 O 6, is dissolved in 25.2 g of water at 25 o C. The vapor pressure of water at 25 o C is 23.8 mmhg. What is the vapor pressure of the solution? (C=12, H=1, O=16). Solution الوزن الجزيئي للجليكوز Mwt. of C 6 H 12 O 6 = (6x12) + (12x1)+(16x6)= 180 g/mol الوزن الجزيئي للماء Mwt. of water H 2 O = (2x1) + (16x1) = 18 g/mol حساب عدد موالت الجليكوز n 2 = = mol حساب عدد موالت الماء n 1 = = 1.4 mol حساب الكسر المولي للجليكوز X 2 = n 2 (n 1 +n 2 ) X 2 = ( ) = ΔP= P. X 2 ΔP = 23.8 x = mmhg The vapor pressure of the solution is ΔP= P -P P= P - ΔP P= =23.3 mmhg
16 االرتفاع في درجة الغليان Boiling point elevation عند اذابة مادة صلبه غير متطايرة في سائل فإن درجة غليان المذيب سوف ترتفع وأن هذا االرتفاع يتناسب طرديا مع عدد موالت المذاب وكذلك كتلتة. The presence of a non-volatile solute in the liquid solvent elevates the boiling point of the solvent. يعود السبب في ارتفاع درجة غليان المحلول الى ان وحدات )جزيئات او ايونات( المذاب تشد اليها جزيئات المذيب فتعيقها عن االنطالق )التبخر( وبهذا يحتاج تبخير المذيب الى طاقة اعلى اي ان درجة غليان المحلول قد ازدادت. T b = K b. m T b = T 1 - T o درجة غليان المحلول T 1 = The boiling-point of solution درجة غليان المذيب النقي T o = The boiling-point of pure solvent االرتفاع في درجة الغليان ثابت االرتفاع في درجة الغليان T b = The boiling-point elevation K b = The molal boiling-point constant m = The molality of the solute in the solution. تركيز المذاب في المحلول بالمواللية
17 تذكر ان : المواللية هي عدد الموالت من المذاب في كليو جرام من المذيب ويمكن تحويلها الى جرام بضرب الناتج في المواللية = عدد موالت المذاب وزن او كتلة المذيب )بالكيلو جرام( المواللية = )عدد موالت المذاب وزن او كتلة المذيب بالجرام( 1000 x االنخفاض في درجة التجمد Freezing point depression تنخفض درجة المذيب النقي عند اذابة مادة صلبة غير متطايرة فيها وهذا االنخفاض في درجة التجمد يتناسب طرديا مع عدد موالت المادة المذابة وكذلك كتلتة بمعنى اخر يتناسب طرديا مع التركيز المواللي للمذاب في المذيب. The freezing point depression, T f, is a colligative property of a solution equal to the freezing point of the pure solvent minus the freezing point of the solution. Freezing-point depression, T f, like boiling-point elevation, is proportional to the molal concentration. يعود سبب االنخفاض في درجة تجمد المحلول الى ان جزيئات المذاب تباعد بين جزيئات المذيب. اي ان جزيئات المذاب تعيق تقارب جزيئات المذيب ولذا فأننا نحتاج الى مزيد من التبريد.
18 T f = K f. m T o = The freezing point of pure درجة تجمد المذيب النقي solvent T 1 = The freezing point of درجة تجمد المحلول solution T f = T 0 T 1 االنخفاض في درجة التجمد T f = The freezing-point depression ثابت االنخفاض في درجة التجمد constant. K f = The freezing-point-depression m = The molality of the solute in the solution. تركيز المذاب في المحلول بالمواللية مالحظات: في حالة االرتفاع في درجة غليان المحلول تضاف درجة االرتفاع في غليان الملحلول الى درجة غليان المذيب النقي T b is added to the normal boiling point of the solvent. في حالة االنخفاض في درجة تجمد المحلول تطرح درجة انخفاض الملحلول من درجة غليان المذيب النقي T f is subtracted from the normal boiling point of the solvent. يجب االنتباه الى ان االرتفاع في درجة غليان المحلول و االنخفاض في درجة تجمد المحلول ال تعتمد على نوع المذاب ولكن تعتمد على عدد الجسيمات الذائبة في المحلول )التركيز او الكمية (. In both boiling point elevation and freezing point depression, T does not depend on what the solute is, but only on how many particles are dissolved.
19 Q1. An aqueous solution is m glucose. What are the boiling point and the freezing point of this solution? (for water, K b = o C/m and K f = 1.86 o C/m). Solution T b = K b. m = 0.512x = C T f = K f. m =1.86 x = C The boiling point of the solution is C C = C and the freezing point is C C = C, Note that T b is added and T f is subtracted. Q2. Calculate the boiling point of the solution containing 40.5g of glycerol (C 3 H 8 O 3 ) in 100g of water? (K b(h2o) = C/m). ( C =12, H=1, O=16) Q2. Calculate the approximate freezing point of the solution made from 21g of glycerol (C 3 H 8 O 3 ) and 10 2 g of water? (K f(h2o) = 1.86 C/m). ( C =12, H=1, O=16)
20 الضغط االسموزي Osmotic Pressure A solution and pure solvent are separated by a semipermeable membrane, which allows solvent but not solute molecules to pass through. االسموزية هي مرور جزيئات السائل من المحلول المخفف الى المحلول االكثر تركيز عبر غشاء شبه منفذ. High concentration Low concentration عند وضع غشاء شبة منفذ membrane) (semipermeable بين محلولين مختلفي التركيز فإن الغشاء يسمح بنفاذ المذيب ( السائل( سواء كان ماء او غيره في كال االتجاهين ولكن سوف ينفذ المذيب في البداية بشكل اكبر نحو المحلول ذو التركيز االعلى حتى يصل الى حالة االتزان وعندها يكون نفاذ او مرور المذيب في االتجاهين متساوي. وكنتيجه لهذا فان مستوى السائل في المحلول ذو التركيز االعلى سوف يرتفع وينخفض مستوى السائل في المحلول ذو التركيز االقل ويكون الفرق بين المنسوبين يمثل او يوازي الفرق في الضغط. عند الوصل لحالة االتزان فان الفرق في الضغط يسمى الضغط االسموزي ( Pressure.(Osmotic In below Fig., (a) a pure solvent and its solution (containing a nonvolatile solute) are separated by a semipermeable membrane through which solvent molecules (blue) can pass but solute molecules (green) cannot. The rate of solvent transfer is greater from solvent to solution than from solution to solvent. (b) The system at equilibrium, where the rate of solvent transfer is the same in both directions. The minimum pressure that stops the osmosis is equal to the osmotic pressure of the solution [Reprinted from: S. S. Zumdahl and S. A. Zumdahl, Chemistry Seventh Edition, 2007, ISBN 13: ]
21 يعود السبب في تكون هذه الظاهره االسموزية الى ان حركة الجزيئات في الملحول االقل تركيز اسرع منها في المحلول المركز باالضافة الى ان الضغط البخاري في الملحول المخفف اعلى منه في المحلول المركز مما قد يشكل ضغطا على المحلول المخفف باتجاه المحلول المركز. Vapor pressure Dilute Solution انتقال المذيب Concentrated solution يمكن القيام بعكس اتجاه المذيب )مثال الماء( من المحلول ذو التركيز العالي الى التركيز المنخفض وذلك بتسليط ضغط خارجي على المحلول ذو التركيز العالي ومن ثم ينفذ الماء عبر الغشاء الشبة منفذ ( Pressure (Osmotic الى التركيز المنخفض وهذا يسمى بالضغط االسموزي العكسي. ويستفاد من هذه الظاهره في عملية تنقية المياة.
22 Experiments display that the dependence of the osmotic pressure on solution concentration is represented by the equation: وجد عمليا ان الضغط االسموزي يتناسب طرديا مع تركيزالمحلول ومع درجة حرارة المطلقة Π = MRT الضغط االسموزي (atm) Π is the osmotic pressure in atmospheres التركيز بالموالرية M is the molarity of the solution ثابت الغازات ) -1.K R is the gas law constant ( L.atm.mol -1 درجة الحرارة بالكالفن (K) T is the Kelvin temperature تذكر ان : M= n v (L) الموالرية = عدد موالت المذاب حجم المحلول بالتر وبالتالي يمكن صياغه العالقة بشكل اخر كمايلي: Π = (n/v)rt
23 Q.1 Q.2
24 المحاليل االليكتروليتية Electrolytes Solutions االليكتروليتات هي المواد التي تتفكك الى ايونات موجبة او سالبة وبالتالي تعطي محلوال موصال للتيار الكهربائي. والالالكتروليتات هي المواد التي ال تتفكك في الماء الى ايونات بل الى جزيئات وبذلك فمحاليلها غير موصلة للتيار الكهربائي.
Mean bond enthalpy Standard enthalpy of formation Bond N H N N N N H O O O
Q1. (a) Explain the meaning of the terms mean bond enthalpy and standard enthalpy of formation. Mean bond enthalpy... Standard enthalpy of formation... (5) (b) Some mean bond enthalpies are given below.
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