REVEALING NICOPOLIS: Ten Years of Research at Octavian s Victory City

REVEALING NICOPOLIS: Ten Years of Research at Octavian s Victory City D. Kalpakis COLLOQUIUM After Actium: New Archaeological Finds from Roman Greece British Museum, November 12 th -14 th, 2003 PREFACE The sea-battle of Actium (31 B.C.) is a turning point in history, which among other things, contributed to the formation of a common historical heritage. Octavian s victory does not simply represent Rome s prevalence over Anthony and Cleopatra but also the end of the small autonomous kingdoms that formed the colourful mosaic of the Hellenistic world. The sea-battle of Actium marked the beginning of a new era which, based on the rich heritage of what proceeded, created what we now call the western world. Octavian s political vision helped him evaluate immediately the significance of his victory. The young general chose the land across the coast, where the naval battle took place, for the foundation of his symbol-city. Beyond the apparent symbolism, the site, despite its marshy soil, was perfect for the development of trade and communication, as well as the control of the land routes towards and from inland Epirus. Α. THE PLACE The archaeological site of Nicopolis is located in a flat area on the peninsula of Preveza, surrounded by two seas: the Ionian Sea, which provides an open route to the West, and the Ambracian Gulf, which provides access to inland Epirus. To the south, beyond the peninsula, lays the promontory of Actium. Nicopolis is situated at the centre of this area. The irregular quadrilateral shape of the fortification walls meets the needs of the special morphology of the -1-

ground rather than those of defensive tactics. With the establishment of PAX ROMANA, the fortifications acquired a rather decorative character. This might explain why the west part of the city was left unfortified. In this area the walls were replaced by the piers of the aqueduct, which carried water to the city from the springs of Aghios Georgios, covering a distance of around 50 km. This western line of the fortification is interrupted by a monumental gate; the main West Gate of the city. This gate, which is framed by two Nymphaia, led to the one of the ports of Nicopolis on the Ionian shores known as Komaros. A second main gate, the South-East, led to Vathys Limen. This port was considered to be one of the most secure in Greece. Along the roads leading from the gates to the ports there are remains of cemeteries. The same picture can be seen in two more gates: one to the southwest and one to the north side of the walls, which, through a road crossing the North Necropolis led to the Proasteion ( the suburb on the grove ). The construction of the Proasteion may have been dictated by the need of emphasizing the symbolic role of the city (e.g. the Sacred Tropaeum on the hilltop). The public buildings in the Proasteion (the Theatre, the Stadium and the Gymnasium) on the foot of the hill constitute a group of monuments, which formed the core of the intellectual and artistic life of the city as well as the area where the Actian Games took place. In this respect, it seems that Augustus built a Greek-type sanctuary, like Olympia or Nemea, serving the needs for the organisation of the Games. The city was laid out around two main streets according to the Roman grid system. The public buildings in the centre of the city (the Odeion, the Bouleuterion, as well as the Forum, which was probably located there) were surrounded by private houses, as shown by the house of Manius Antoninus. Secondary buildings (water-cisterns, baths, etc.) were located at the edge of the city. Although Nicopolis was settled by inhabitants from neighbouring towns of Epirus and Akarnania against their own will, the city managed to flourish considerably. This is supported by the construction of impressive monuments, the -2-

references to the city in ancient sources and also by agonistic inscriptions set up in honour of the victors of the Actian Games, attested in many places of the ancient world. A number of successive barbarian raids during the 4 th -6 th centuries A.D. had as a result the reduction of the city to one-sixth of its initial size. In early Christian times the city was actually relocated to the north-west section of the Roman city. However, it continued to prosper, as suggested by the ruins of the luxurious basilicas decorated with unique sculptures and mosaic floors. The last sources about Nicopolis date to the 11 th century A.D. The ruins of Nicopolis attracted travellers, whose descriptions constitute the only references to the site. Β. THE RESEARCH Soon after the annexation of Epirus to the Greek state, Alexandros Philadelpheus conducted a series of surveys and investigations in Nicopolis (Fig.1). From 1913 to 1926 he investigated a considerably large part of the city and carried out small-scale excavations in many of the monuments that were still visible, for example in the Victory Monument, the Central Baths, the West Gate and the Nymphaia, part of the West and East Necropolis, the Bishop s Palace, in Basilicas A and B, the Basilica of the Ascension and the Basilica of Apostles. 1 From 1926 until the beginning of World War II, Anastasios Orlandos and Georgios Soteriou under the auspices of the Archaeological Society of Athens conducted works in the area, focusing their investigations on the early Christian basilicas. 2 After the war (1956), Orlandos returned to Nicopolis and continued his research until 1965. 3 Dakaris expanded the investigations to the remaining monuments, part of which were originally studied by Philadelpheus. The work of 1 PHILADELPHEUS 1913a; 1913b; 1914a; 1914b; 1915; 1916a; 1916b; 1917; 1918a; 1918b; 1921; 1922; 1922-1923; 1924; 1926; 1927; 1928. 2 SOTERIOU 1926; 1938; ORLANDOS 1928; SOTERIOU & ORLANDOS 1929; 1930; ORLANDOS & SOTERIOU 1937. In the built-up to the World War II Papadimitriou carried out small-scale excavations in a building in the Gymnasion, see PAPADIMITRIOU 1940. 3 ORLANDOS 1956; 1959; 1961a; 1961b. In 1959 Orlandos and Pallas dug a trial trench in a villa of the early Christian times, in the site of Ftelia close to the shores of the Ambracian Gulf, see ORLANDOS & PALLAS 1959. -3-

this period mainly consists of small-scale excavations and preservation works. In 1974, Petsas, under the auspices of the Archaeological Society of Athens, carried out excavations for a few days only in the Victory Monument. 4 For three decades (1950s-1980s) the Ephorate carried out rescue excavations, preservation and restoration works. 5 Despite some small-scale excavations (e.g. in the house of Manius Antoninus and in the North Necropolis), the interest was focused on preservation and small-scale restoration projects. Some of the most important restoration work took place in major monuments, as for example the Odeion, the Nymphaia, the North Baths, the Theatre and the West Gate. Moreover, restoration works were carried out in the part of the aqueduct, which stands near the village of Aghios Georgios by the River Louros. Moreover, excavations at the west of the city revealed some more graves in the West Necropolis as well as parts of ancient roads. From 1913 to the 1980s archaeological research at Nicopolis was not systematic, but had a rescue character. Nicopolis, which until then was known only from ancient sources and the descriptions of travellers, proved to be of special significance. The city was extended over a large area. For the preservation and better understanding of the site, long-term projects were deemed of crucial importance. The year 1991 marked the beginning of a new era in the research, restoration, preservation and protection of Nicopolis. In particular, the archaeological site was demarcated for the first time, including an area of about 1,300 hectares. Protection zones were set by the Greek State on the wider archaeological site and posed terms concerning the use of land and building activities in the area. Under those circumstances, the systematic documentation and management of the site was of crucial importance. Within this framework, the Kleopatra Project was initiated in 1993. It was an interdisciplinary research programme that aimed, with the collaboration of 4 PETSAS 1974a; 1974b. 5 For the works of the ephorate during this period see the reports in the Χρονικά of the Αρχαιολογικό Δελτίο and also DAKARIS 1952; VOKOTOPOULOU 1987; ANDREOU 1987. -4-

universities and institutions, to the scientific documentation of the data and the better understanding of the site. 6 This project had four main goals: a) to collect the cartographic material related to the site, namely topographical maps in the scale of 1:1,000 and 1:5,000, and all available material from other sources (e.g. maps of land plots, aerial photos, statistical tables, drawings and other visual material), b) to conduct geophysical research by means of electric and magnetic sub-soil investigations, c) to carry out systematic field surveys and to collect surface finds and d) to organise and analyse the aforementioned data by means of a filing operational system. One of the project s results is the creation of relational databases for all the visible monuments, the finds, as well as the land plots within the boundaries of the archaeological site. The topographic data was digitally organised. It provides an invaluable database with information on infrastructure (outlines, contours, land use, land coverage, technical works, inhabited places, road and hydrology network etc.) and monuments (ground plans and reconstructions). At the same time, the photo-archive covered various documentation needs, ranging from the general overview of the site (aerial photos, ortho-photomosaics), the layout and structure of the monuments to the small finds. The success of this project was such that the adopted methodology provided the basis for later activities. During the first five years of the project, a huge amount of information that until then was vague and unclear was collected and systematically organised. From 1991 to 1994 the IB Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities and the 8 th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities in collaboration with the University of Boston conducted field-surveys in the wider area of Nicopolis ( Nicopolis Project ) (Fig. 2). The surveys enriched considerably our knowledge about the archaeological sites of the area. 7 6 ZACHOS 1993; 1994; 1995b; 1998; ZACHOS & GEORGIOU 1997; 1998. 7 For the preliminary reports see WISEMAN et al. 1991; 1992; 1993; 1993. On the aims, the methodology and the results of the geomorphological investigations and on the Palaiolithic period see WISEMAN & ZACHOS 2003. On the distribution of the sites in the wider area during the Imperial period and in the Late Antiquity see WISEMAN 2001; STEIN 2001. On the study of the pottery see MOORE 2000; 2001; On the Bronze Age see TARTATON 2004. -5-

From 1995 onwards surveys, excavations and restoration works are being carried out at the site (MAP 1). These works have largely shaped the present picture of Nicopolis. Their aims were similar to that of the Kleopatra Project, namely the concurrent and multi-level documentation of the data with the aid of technological means. One of the most important and time-consuming stages of the work is the clearance of the area from vegetation (Fig. 3). The climatic conditions along with the morphology of the ground lead to an uncontrollable growth of the flora. In every excavation season the site is cleared from vegetation. The works focus on specific monuments and other areas within the site, but they do not include the entire site. Apart from annual scraping of areas where remains are not visible and of major monuments, like the Theatre, the rest of the scraping aims to protect some monuments, which have at the meantime been covered by vegetation. The scraping also helps the better topographical and architectural documentation of monuments. 8 The scrapings of the area have improved the general picture of the archaeological site. In many cases small-scale excavations followed the clearance of the site from vegetation in order to clarify the layout and construction phases of some monuments. A considerable number of monuments, the remains of which were visible, was surveyed: the Gymnasium, the Stadium, the Nymphaia, the Odeion, a water cistern on an ancient crossroad within the city, the baths on the south side of the city, a small gate and a tower to the north and south side of the fortification wall, the South-West Gate, a building north of the South Gate, parts of streets, etc. The excavations that were conducted as part of the preservation and public presentation of the site fall into three categories: exploratory/investigative in connection to deep cleaning; systematic and salvage excavations, the latter in 8 The problem of the vegetation in the archaeological sites was discussed in the two-days colloquium organised by the Friends of Akropolis in the spring of 1998, see TOULOUPA & KAÏMARA 1998. -6-

relation the works for the public presentation of specific monuments. Most excavations, however, were systematic in nature. During systematic excavations a considerably large number of finds came to light. The excavations were carefully planned. The selection of the excavated monuments was based on the project s aims. The objectives were the following: to trace the course of the walls circuit and to investigate some key monuments in the light of urban planning, function and symbolism. The systematic excavations at the Victory Monument (Fig. 4) and the house of Manius Antoninus (Fig. 5) were probably the most important ones due to their long duration and the archaeological finds that came to light. Both excavations concerned two key-monuments; the Victory Monument is of symbolic importance, whereas the house of Manius Antoninus is incorporated into the grid plan of the city. 9 The investigations in the North Necropolis are included in the systematic excavations that were conducted at Nicopolis. The Necropolis lies outside the northern section of the Roman walls along the funerary road, which led from the city to the Proasteion. In an area of some 70,000 square meters, 30 Mausolea have so far been found (including the ones from earlier excavations), eleven of which have been systematically excavated. Most mausolea usually consist of a vaulted chamber paved either with limestone slabs or bricks and in one case with mosaics (Mausoleum 3). Sarcophagi of poros stones, which were built in bricked structures, or stone sarcophagi with relief sculpture (marble ones or sarcophagi of the Assos type) had been placed along the walls of the chamber, at least in the best-preserved chambers. In a few mausolea the sarcophagi coexist with built tombs and recesses, set into the inner walls (columbria). There, urns containing cremated remains would have been placed. The different types of graves (cist graves, tile- 9 For the recent investigation in the Victory Monument with earlier bibliography: ZACHOS 1995a; 1996; 2001a; 2001b; 2003; forthcoming; ZACHOS & KAPPA 1997; 1998; 1999; forthcoming a; forthcoming b; forthcoming c; forthcoming d. For the recent investigation in the house of Manius Antoninus with earlier bibliography, see KATSADIMA 1997; ZACHOS & KYRKOU 1998; 1999; forthcoming a; forthcoming b; forthcoming c; KYRKOU 2006; 2007. -7-

covered ones, cremation urns set in purpose-built recesses, and pot-burials [enchytrismoi]) are organized into funerary enclosures. The earliest tombs in the necropolis date to the first century A.D. On the basis of the available archaeological data, it appears that the necropolis was in use until the fourth century A.D. 10 Two more systematic excavations aimed to restore the city s contour; one at the North Gate and another at the South Gate of the walls. The excavations at the North Gate contributed to the better documentation of the gate itself and revealed a number of graves in the adjacent North Necropolis (Fig. 6). Two apsidal towers with small entrances at the inner side of the wall frame the monumental gate, measuring 4.60 meters in width. The fortification wall, 4.90 m. wide, is built of mortared rubble; on the faces it is lined with bricks. On the faces of the gate the wall is lined with blocks. 11 Part of a street (12 x 3 m.) was discovered in the area around the gate. It was made of large limestone slabs of different sizes. The street ran through the gate, crossing the North Necropolis. In all likelihood, it ran between the Stadium and the Gymnasium ending to the Victory Monument. The excavations also revealed a necropolis, to the exterior of the fortification wall. The cemetery mainly consisted of tile-covered tombs and cist graves most of which were located within funerary enclosures. The gate, the street, the wall, and the towers are contemporaneous and date back to the first years after the foundation of Nicopolis. In the 1970s rescue excavations were conducted in the South Gate of the Roman Walls (Fig. 7). Two apsidal towers at either side of the gate, a large part of the walls, five mausolea and a number of cist-graves and tile-covered tombs were revealed in recent excavations (Fig. 8). Part of a stairway leading to the upper floors of the tower and the rampart was found within the eastern tower. The vaulted passageway of the entrance connected the tower with a few additional structures to the north. Remains of structures were also found north of the western tower. 10 GEORGIOU 2007. 11 On the building technique of the North Gate and the fortification wall in this area, see ZABAS 2007. -8-

The mausolea on the west side of the South Gate are of special interest. Mausoleum 1 is a Pi-shaped structure on a stepped podium. Its floor was paved with a mosaic, fragments of which have been preserved (white tessera). An inscribed sarcophagus of the Assos type (2nd-3rd centuries A.D.) stood on a limestone base in the interior of the Mausoleum. Fragments of stone sarcophagi and architectural elements were found in the earth filling. Apart from tiled-covered tombs, a number of cist-graves were unearthed. A few covering slabs of the cist-graves are preserved along with inscribed funerary stelai. Monuments within the city and in a good state of preservation have also been excavated. These excavations aim to reveal the monuments, removing earth fillings. They also aim to collect scientific data, which will enable conservation and restoration works. These excavations include the Central Baths and the Odeion. The Central Baths, first excavated by Philadelpheus, is a monumental complex lying in the area enclosed by the Early Christian walls. The visible parts of this complex extend over an area of about 2 ha. Eight rooms have been found. The two largest rooms (A and B) dictate the basic axes of the complex. Room A is oriented N-S and is accessed through an arched entrance from the south. Vaulted spaces, supported by pillars, run along the inner long sides of Room A. Part of the mosaic floor of this room was found in a sondage excavation. A dolphin scene and parallel zones with geometric and floral motives can be discerned. In the eastern part of Room B, which has an E-W orientation, a piscina was found, occupying an area of 59 sq.m. The remaining spaces of the complex are either secondary rooms or later additions. Room Z adjacent to Room B is of special interest. It is a large circular or semicircular room from which only the south part is visible. Its location along with its shape are reminiscent of the central heated rooms of the large baths (caldarium or laconicum). According to the available archaeological evidence the construction phase of this complex dates to the second half of the second century A.D. The Odeion has been recently excavated, nearly thirty years after the last investigations there (Fig. 9). Recent excavations focused on specific parts of the -9-

monument (parascenia, outer perimeter, external stairways and north external side) in order to shed light on its construction. 12 This small theatre was primarily designed for musical performances. It could accommodate about 1,000 people. It presents, to a certain degree, the typical features of similar buildings of the end of the first century B.C. These features include the monumental stage and the construction of the cavea in a flat ground. The cavea rests on three concentric, semi-circular porticoes. The semi-circular cavea has twenty rows of seats and is divided into two tiers (diazomata). Staircases at the sides and in the centre gave access to the rows of seats. The upper tier was also accessed through a double staircase from the exterior. The floor of the semi-circular orchestra, paved with coloured marble slabs, is partly preserved. To the north in the area of the stage, there is a channel used for lowering and raising the curtains during performances. The excavations are always accompanied by detailed topographical plans. It was necessary, for such an extended area, to set a dense geodetic network of stable control points in order to cover the entire site and to ensure precise measurements. During systematic excavations, the architectural remains that come to light are recorded on topographical plans, thus being fully recorded. The points of measurements, a few thousands per excavation, cover all three dimensions of the monuments. In every excavation season, apart from the topographical plans, detailed architectural plans are drawn. High accuracy on both the topographical and the architectural plans was considered necessary. In this way, the documentation needs are met. Moreover, it becomes possible to observe the pathology of the monuments, so that the conservation and restoration take into account all the available evidence. Besides the small-scale conservation, which was concurrently conducted with the excavations, a broader restoration programme was carried out. During this programme, three different restoration projects took place; one in the fortification 12 For the Odeion see VOKOTOPOULOU 1970; 1972; 1973; ANTONATOS 2007. -10-

walls, at the North and South Gate; another in the mausolea of the North Necropolis and a third one in single monuments, such as the Victory Monument, the Central Baths and the Odeion (Figs. 10-12). Restorations were mainly focused on the masonry and were later extended to the mortar and the mosaic floors. For the mosaic floors special studies were carried out, providing suggestions and solutions for their better conservation and restoration (Fig. 13). At the same time, a large number of finds was transferred to the labs for additional treatment. The restoration programme was followed by presentation works in an attempt to make accessible the main monuments to the visitors; that is, the Victory Monument, the North Necropolis, the house of Manius Antoninus, the South Gate and the Odeion. These works included the redevelopment of the site, the construction of protection shelters, where necessary (Fig. 14), routes for the visitors (Fig. 15), fences and information panels (Fig. 16). For the Odeion, which is considered a special case due to severe static problems, a detailed documentation study towards its general restoration is under development. Besides the works mentioned above and as part of the organization of the archaeological data for further research, a pottery collection was organized under the supervision of John Hayes, an Oxford-based expert in the field (Fig. 17). This collection is the first attempt to organize this type of material evidence and includes representative samples of pottery, both local and imported, organized in multiple levels: shape, use, origin of clay, etc. It covers a period of about seven centuries (from the 1 st century B.C. until the 6 th -7 th century A.D.). In order to promote Nicopolis in the scientific community, an international Symposium for Nicopolis was organized in 2002 with the collaboration of scholars from various countries. 13 The aim of the Symposium was to present all 13 ZACHOS 2007. -11-

the available archaeological evidence that arose in recent investigations and to encourage the exchange of knowledge between specialists. In addition, a series of publications of the site and its monuments was launched. The series includes short guides on individual monuments, such as the Victory Monument 14 and the house of Manius Antoninus. 15 It also includes the first accurate map of the archaeological site. An updated version of the map is about to be published. C. PLANNING: The concept of the archaeological park and the digitization of the documentation The progress of the work so far has shown that the documentation and preservation of the archaeological site can considerably benefit from coordinated attempts and a proper methodology. In addition, the site of Nicopolis can be transformed into an archaeological park within the framework of cultural management. 16 The ecosystem is unique, while the various monuments that have come to light reveal the history of the city in the course of time. The first part of this plan concerns the digitization of documentation, which is of crucial importance for the successful management of the site. This is the technical part of the project, which, as planned, could be divided in single work phases. It is a Geographic Information System with two stages: the actual Geographic Information System (GIS) and the Visual Information System (VIS). The GIS aims to the digitization of the available information. The spatial factor is decisive for the successful management of such an extended site as well 14 ZACHOS 2001a. 15 KYRKOU 2006. 16 In 2005 the Scientific Committee of Nicopolis submitted to the Department of Antiquities a study for the presentation of the entire archaeological site. This study was approved by the Central Archaeological Council, see ZACHOS et al. forthcoming a. The study includes a number of suggestions-interventions, which aim to the presentation of the site as a unified, functional and readable ensemble, to the enhancement of its aesthetic and educational value and to the promotion of the historical continuity within an enhanced environment. The study aims to set the foundations for the organisation of the archaeological site in the short term as well as in the long term, taking care of the future development or the formation of the site, to the extent possible. In April 2006 with the initiative of the Archaeological Institute of Epirotic Studies and with funding from the Region of Epirus, an International Scientific Colloquium was organised in Ioannina on the Archaeological Parks. Experiences and Persectives. There the study for the presentation of Nicopolis in an archaeological park was presented, see ZACHOS et al. forthcoming b. Scholars from Greece and carious European countries attended the colloquium and presented their experiences. -12-

as the key for processing all the data, both scientific and administrative. A refined system, which could manage this load of information, would cover all the needs of the project. At the same time, it would constitute the basis for any future research. The installation of VIS aims mainly to cover the administrative needs. It also functions as the main tool for assets management and the main gate to the multiple types of information. The second part of this plan has three main stages: 1) Integration of the Excavations and Restoration Processes: Nicopolis can never be fully excavated since this action would demand decades of hard work and an enormous budget. Taking into account these parameters, excavations are well planned focusing on key-points of the site. It is thus possible to gather all the necessary data for understanding the history of the city. Therefore, we save time and money for the implementation of simultaneous restoration works. 2) Network of Visitors Routes: The third stage of the plan, which follows and integrates the previous ones, deals with the expansion of the visitors routes. The concept behind this plan predicts short, autonomous and expandable routes on specific areas of the city, which are considered key-points and help the more effective presentation of the site. The new routes, following the example of the existing ones, will provide full access to the already restored monuments. The monuments can be visited either independently or as part of an extended network within the framework of a broader visitors plan in the future. 3) Effective Control of Vegetation: Given all the aforementioned problems in the field of vegetation, the control of the local flora s growth as well as its effective management, is a matter of high priority. It is actually the starting points for the site s actual reorganization. We should mention here a specific project currently under development. It is the result of the fruitful collaboration between the Committee of Ancient Nicopolis -13-

and the Free University of Amsterdam. The concept of this innovative project can be summarized as follows: The pilot phase of this project aims to evaluate the situation regarding the control of vegetation and the protection of the monuments from it. It also aims to assess the viability of the future archaeological park and establish the most suitable geophysical prospection methods for future research. Along with the vegetation survey, which in the case of Nicopolis will harvest rich results, the project will also collect and assess maps and conduct extensive literature research. The first objectives will be: a list of plant species of the entire area and an assessment of the lithostratigraphical profiles of potentially suitable sample locations for palaeo-botanical research. Based on the results of the first phase, we could go further with a new project in the future. This future project could entail the development of a specific action-plan for the sustainable development of the archaeological landscape and the physical preservation of Nicopolis with natural means. In addition, this project would aim to a mild and a high-aesthetics intervention to the site, which will also prove financially workable for the inhabitants of the region. D. CONCLUSIONS Summing up, I would like to emphasize the outstanding results of the research that has been carried out in the last decade, from the beginning of the Kleopatra project to date. The extraordinary finds that have come to light during systematic excavations have attracted wide scholarly interest. The various research projects aimed to the better documentation of the site. They have contributed to the better understanding of Nicopolis in the course of time. We hope that future work will contribute further to this direction. -14-

BIBLIOGRAPHY ΑΝDREOU, I., 1987: Το έργο της ΙΒ Εφορείας Αρχαιοτήτων στη Νικόπολη, in E. Chrysos (ed.), Νικόπολις Α. Πρακτικά του Πρώτου Διεθνούς Συμποσίου για τη Νικόπολη (23-29.9.1984), Preveza, 142-152. ANTONATOS, A., 2007: Το Ωδείο της αρχαίας Νικόπολης, in K.L. Zachos (ed.), Νικόπολις Β. Πρακτικά του Δεύτερου Διεθνούς Συμποσίου για τη Νικόπολη (11-15 Σεπτεμβρίου 2002), Preveza, 347-360. DAKARIS, S., 1952: Ρωμαϊκή δεξαμενή Νικοπόλεως, ArchEph, 16-18. GEORGIOU, A., 2007: Βόρεια νεκρόπολη της Νικόπολης. Οργάνωση και ταφική αρχιτεκτονική, in K.L. Zachos (ed.), Νικόπολις Β. Πρακτικά του Δεύτερου Διεθνούς Συμποσίου για τη Νικόπολη (11-15 Σεπτεμβρίου 2002), Preveza, 307-323. KATSADIMA, I., 1997: Οικία Μάνιου Αντωνίνου (αγρ. 143), ArchDelt 52 B2, 592-595. KYRKOU, TH., 2006: Η Έπαυλη του Μάνιου Αντωνίνου: Μια πολυτελής ιδιωτική οικία στη Ρωμαϊκή Νικόπολη, (Μνημεία Νικόπολης 2), Athens. KYRKOU, TH., 2007: Η έπαυλη του Μάνιου Αντωνίνου στη Νικόπολη. Παρατηρήσεις σε ένα σύνολο ιδιωτικής κατοικίας στη Νικόπολη, in K.L. Zachos (ed.), Νικόπολις Β. Πρακτικά του Δεύτερου Διεθνούς Συμποσίου για τη Νικόπολη (11-15 Σεπτεμβρίου 2002), Preveza, 333-345. MOORE, M.G., 2000: Surveying Epirote pottery: ceramics, cuisine, and social history in southern Epirus, Greece, 300 B.C. A.D. 500 (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Boston). MOORE, M.G., 2001: Roman and Late Antique Pottery of Southern Epirus Some Results of the Nikopolis Survey Projects, J. Isager (ed.), Foundation and destruction Nikopolis and Northwestern Greece: the archaeological evidence for the city destructions, the foundation of Nicopolis and the synoecism, (Monographs of the Danish Institute at Athens 3), Aarhus, 79-89. ORLANDOS, A., 1928: Εργασίαι Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 95. ORLANDOS, A., 1956: Aνασκαφή Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 149-153. ORLANDOS, A., 1959: Ανασκαφή Βασιλικής Δ Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 90-97. ORLANDOS, A., 1961a: Ανασκαφή Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 98-107. ORLANDOS, A., 1961b: Νικόπολις, Ergon, 107-118. ORLANDOS, A. and PALLAS, D., 1959: Δοκιμαστική ανασκαφή επαύλεως εν Νικοπόλει, ArchEph, 31-49. ORLANDOS, A. and SOTERIOU, G., 1937: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 78-83. PAPADIMITRIOU, I., 1940: Ανασκαφή Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 28-31. PETSAS, PH., 1974a: Νικόπολις (Ρωμαϊκή), Ergon, 50-53. PETSAS, PH., 1974b: Ανασκαφή Ρωμαϊκής Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 79-88. -15-

PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1913a: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 83-112. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1913b: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, ArchEph, 235. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1914a: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως Χριστιανικά Μνημεία Πρεβέζης, Prakt, 219-242. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1914b: Χριστιανικά μνημεία Νικοπόλεως, ArchEph, 249-260. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1915: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 59-95. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1916a: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 49-64. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1916b: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως Αρχαιότατη Χριστιανική βασιλική, ArchEph, 33-45, 65-72. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1917: Νικοπόλεως ανασκαφαί, ArchEph, 48-71. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1918a: Αι εν Νικοπόλει Ανασκαφαί εν έτει 1918, Prakt, 16-18. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1918b: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, ArchEph, 34-41. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1921: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 42-44. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1922: Πρεβέζης Μουσείον, ArchEph, 66-79. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1922-1923: Περί των εν Νικοπόλει ανασκαφών, Prakt, 40-44. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1924: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 108-115. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1926: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 127-130. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1927: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως (1921-1926), Δελτίον της Χριστιανικής Αρχαιολογικής Εταιρείας 4, 46-61. PHILADELPHEUS, A., 1928: Νικόπολις Συνοπτική ιστορία και περιγραφή των ανασκαφών (1913-1927), των μνημείων και των ερειπίων της, Athens. SOTERIOU, G., 1926: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 122-127. SOTERIOU, G., 1938: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 112-117. SOTERIOU, G. and ORLANDOS, A., 1929: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 83-86. SOTERIOU, G. and ORLANDOS, A., 1930: Ανασκαφαί Νικοπόλεως, Prakt, 79-80. STEIN, C.A., 2001: In the Shadow of Nikopolis: Patterns of Settlement on the Ayios Thomas Peninsula, J. Isager (ed.), Foundation and destruction Nikopolis and Northwestern Greece: the archaeological evidence for the city destructions, the foundation of Nicopolis and the synoecism, (Monographs of the Danish Institute at Athens 3), Aarhus, 65-77. TARTARON, T.F., 2004: Bronze Age landscape and society in Southern Epirus, Greece, Oxford. TOULOUPA, E. and KAÏMARA, E. (eds.), 1998: Αυτοφυής βλάστηση στους αρχαιολογικούς χώρους, Διημερίδα της Ένωσης Φίλων Ακροπόλεως (Αθήνα 22-23.5.1998), Athens. -16-

VOKOTOPOULOU, I., 1970: Αρχαιότητης και Μνημεία Ηπείρου. Στερέωσις του Ωδείου, ArchDelt 25 B2, 314. VOKOTOPOULOU, I., 1972: Αρχαιότητες και Μνημεία Ηπείρου, ArchDelt 27 B2, 442-454. VOKOTOPOULOU, I., 1973: Αρχαιότητες και Μνημεία Ηπείρου, ArchDelt 28 B2, 400-411. VOKOTOPOULOU, I., 1987: Ανασκαφικές και αναστηλωτικές εργασίες στη Νικόπολη κατά την δεκαετία 1967-1977, Νικόπολις Α. Πρακτικά του Πρώτου Διεθνούς Συμποσίου για τη Νικόπολη (23-29.9.1984), Preveza, 135-144. WISEMAN, J., 2001: Landscape Archaeology in the Territory of Nikopolis, in J. Isager (ed.), Foundation and destruction Nikopolis and Northwestern Greece: the archaeological evidence for the city destructions, the foundation of Nicopolis and the synoecism, (Monographs of the Danish Institute at Athens 3), Aarhus, 43-63. WISEMAN, J., ZACHOS, K. and KEPHALLONITOU, PH., 1991: Νομός Πρέβεζας: Ελληνο-αμερικάνικο πρόγραμμα επιφανειακών ερευνών, ArchDelt 46 B1, 247-251. WISEMAN, J., ZACHOS, K. and KEPHALLONITOU, PH., 1992: Συνεργατική Ελληνοαμερικάνικη Επιφανειακή Έρευνα στο Νομό Πρέβεζας, ArchDelt 47 Β1, 293-298. WISEMAN, J., ZACHOS, K. and KEPHALLONITOU, PH., 1993: Ελληνοαμερικάνικο Διεπιστημονικό Πρόγραμμα Επιφανειακών Ερευνών στη Νότια Ήπειρο, ArchDelt 48 Β1, 309-314. WISEMAN, J., ZACHOS, K. and KEPHALLONITOU, PH., 1994: Ελληνοαμερικάνικο Διεπιστημονικό Πρόγραμμα Επιφανειακών Ερευνών στη Νότια Ήπειρο, ArchDelt 49 Β1, 400-407. WISEMAN, J. and ZACHOS, K. (eds.), 2003: Landscape Archaeology in Southern Epirus, Greece, I, (Hesperia Suppl. 32), Athens. ZABAS, K., 2007: Παρατηρήσεις για το σχέδιο και την οικοδομική τεχνολογία του ρωμαϊκού τείχους της Νικόπολης στην περιοχή της βόρειας πύλης του, K.L. Zachos (ed.), Νικόπολις Β. Πρακτικά του Δεύτερου Διεθνούς Συμποσίου για τη Νικόπολη (11-15 Σεπτεμβρίου 2002), Preveza, 263-272. ZACHOS, K., 1993: Ερευνητικό πρόγραμμα «Κλεοπάτρα»: Αυτοματοποιημένο σύστημα τεκμηρίωσης αρχαιολογικού χώρου Νικοπόλεως, ArchDelt 48 B1, 304-309. ZACHOS, K., 1994: Συστηματικές Έρευνες Ερευνητικό Πρόγραμμα «Κλεοπάτρα»: Αυτοματοποιημένο Σύστημα Τεκμηρίωσης Αρχαιολογικού Χώρου Νικόπολης, ArchDelt 49 Β1, 395-400. ZACHOS, K., 1995a: Νομός Πρέβεζας, Νικόπολη: Μνημείο Αυγούστου, ArchDelt 50 Β2, 421-428. ZACHOS, K., 1995b: Ερευνητικό Πρόγραμμα «Κλεοπάτρα»: Αυτοματοποιημένο Σύστημα Τεκμηρίωσης Αρχαιολογικού Χώρου Νικόπολης, ArchDelt 50 Β2, 428. ZACHOS, K., 1996: Νομός Πρέβεζας, Νικόπολη: Μνημείο Οκταβιανού Αυγούστου, ArchDelt 51 Β1, 395-398. -17-

ZACHOS, K., 1998: Το ερευνητικό πρόγραμμα «Κλεοπάτρα» στην αρχαία Νικόπολη, Δέλτος 6-7, 15-20. ZACHOS, K., 2001a: Το μνημείο του Οκταβιανού Αυγούστου στη Νικόπολη. Το τρόπαιο της ναυμαχίας του Ακτίου, Athens. ZACHOS, K., 2001b: Excavations at the Actian Tropaeum at Nikopolis: a preliminary report, in J. Isager (ed.), Foundation and destruction Nikopolis and Northwestern Greece: the archaeological evidence for the city destructions, the foundation of Nicopolis and the synoecism, (Monographs of the Danish Institute at Athens 3), Aarhus, 29-41. ZACHOS, K., 2003: The tropaeum of the sea-battle of Actium at Nikopolis: interim reports, JRS 16, 64-92. ZACHOS, K., forthcoming: Νομός Πρέβεζα: Τ.Δ.Π.Ε.ΑΕ. Επιτροπή Νικόπολης, ArchDelt. ZACHOS, K. (ed.), 2007: Νικόπολις Β. Πρακτικά του Δεύτερου Διεθνούς Συμποσίου για τη Νικόπολη (11-15 Σεπτεμβρίου 2002), Preveza. ZACHOS, K. et al., forthcoming a: Μελέτη Συνολικής Ανάδειξης Αρχαιολογικού Χώρου Νικόπολης, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού, Τ.Δ.Π.Ε.Α.Ε., Επιτροπή Νικόπολης, (αδημοσίευτη). ZACHOS, K. et al., forthcoming b: Αρχαιολογικό Πάρκο Νικόπολης: Πρόταση Αναβάθμισης του ιστορικού τοπίου στο πλαίσιο ενός ευαίσθητου οικοσυστήματος, ανακοίνωση στην Ημερίδα: Αρχαιολογικά Πάρκα: Εμπειρίες και Προοπτικές, (Ιωάννινα, 1.4.2006). ZACHOS, K. and GEORGIOU, A., 1997: Νομός Πρέβεζας Νικόπολη: Ερευνητικό πρόγραμμα «Κλεοπάτρα»: Θέατρο Βόρεια Νεκρόπολη Περιοχή Δυτικής Πύλης Δυτική Νεκρόπολη, ArchDelt 52 B2, 579-592. ZACHOS, K. and GEORGIOU, A., 1998: Ερευνητικό Πρόγραμμα «Κλεοπάτρα», ArchDelt 53 Β2, 511-514. ZACHOS, K. and KAPPA, CH., 1997: Νομός Πρέβεζας, Νικόπολη: Οκταβιανού Αυγούστου, ArchDelt 52 Β2, 576-578. ZACHOS, K. and KAPPA, CH., 1998: Νομός Πρέβεζας, Νικόπολη: Αυγούστου, ArchDelt 53 Β2, 503-508. ZACHOS, K. and KAPPA, CH., 1999: Νομός Πρέβεζας, Νικόπολη: Οκταβιανού Αυγούστου, ArchDelt 54 Β1, 471-474. Μνημείο Μνημείο Μνημείο ZACHOS, K. and KAPPA, CH., forthcoming a: Νομός Πρέβεζας, Νικόπολη: Μνημείο Οκταβιανού Αυγούστου, ArchDelt. ZACHOS, K. and KAPPA, CH., forthcoming b: Νομός Πρέβεζας: Μνημείο Αυγούστου, ArchDelt. ZACHOS, K. and KAPPA, CH., forthcoming c: Νομός Πρέβεζας: Τ.Δ.Π.Ε.Α.Ε. Επιτροπή Νικόπολης: Μνημείο Οκταβιανού Αυγούστου, ArchDelt. ZACHOS, K. and KAPPA, CH., forthcoming d: Νομός Πρέβεζας: Τ.Δ.Π.Ε.Α.Ε. Επιτροπή Νικόπολης: Ανασκαφικές εργασίες - Μνημείο Οκταβιανού Αυγούστου, ArchDelt. -18-

ZACHOS, K. and KYRKOU, TH., 1998: Έπαυλη Μάνιου Αντωνίνου, ArchDelt 53 B2, 508-511. ZACHOS, K. and KYRKOU, TH., 1999: Συντήρηση ψηφιδωτών Οικία Μάνιου Αντωνίνου, ArchDelt 54 B1, 479. ZACHOS, K. and KYRKOU, TH., forthcoming a: Ρωμαϊκή οικία Μάνιου Αντωνίνου, ArchDelt. ZACHOS, K. and KYRKOU, TH., forthcoming b: Έπαυλη Μάνιου Αντωνίνου, ArchDelt. ZACHOS, K. and KYRKOU, TH., forthcoming c: Οικία του Μάνιου Αντωνίνου, ArchDelt. -19-

FIGURES Fig. 1