Περίληψη : Ayasoluk was situated near the estuary of River Cayster (Küçük Menderes). The city was annexed to the Ottoman Empire in 1425. The decline of Ayasoluk started in the 16th century and was completed in the 17th century. It remained a little village until the late 19th century. After the construction of the railway line, it became a transportation centre for the villages of the region. In August 1922, the Christian Orthodox inhabitants abandoned their houses. Άλλες Ονομασίες Old Ephesus, Ayasoluğ, Hagios Theologos, Selçuk Γεωγραφική Θέση western coast of Asia Minor Ιστορική Περιοχή Ionia Διοικητική Υπαγωγή Müdürlük of Ayasoluk, kaymakamlık of Kuşadası, mutasarrıflık of Aydin, vilayet of Smyrna 1. Location Ayasoluk was near the estuary of Cayster River, called Küçük Menderes (little Maeander) by the Turks, within 56 km to the SE of Smyrna, 15 km to the NE of Kuşadası and 43 km to the NW of Aydin. 2. Administrative structure The kaza of Ayasoluk, which belonged to the Vilayet of Aydin, was established in 1425, after the Ottoman occupation. The kaza was based in the namesake city. From the early years of Mehmed II the Conqueror until 1523, Ayasoluk was a kaza under the sancak of Aydin and the Eyalet of Anadolu. 1 Later on, in 1573, it did not belong to the same sancak. 2 In 1671, during the visit of Evliya Çelebi, it was an insignificant kaza under the sancak of Aydin. 3 In 1831, it formed a kaza of the sancak of Aydin, a status that continued until 1876. After 1876, the kaza of Ayasoluk was demoted and became a nahiye based in Ayasoluk, which was under the kaza of Kuşadası and the sancak of Smyrna. 4 Towards the late 19th century, until May 22, 1919, the settlement of Ayasoluk was successively under the müdürlük of Ayasoluk, the kaymakamlık of Kuşadası, the mutasarrıflık of Aydin and the vilayet of Smyrna. 3. History The name of the settlement was a corruption of the word Hagios Theologos (Saint Theologian). The settlement was given that name thanks to the old church of St. John the Theologian existing there. Ayasoluk was first occupied by the Ottomans in 1390. In 1402, Tamerlan returned it to the Aydınoğullar. 5 In 1425, in the years of Murad II, Ayasoluk was finally captured again by the Ottomans and was permanently annexed to their territories. The city, which was an economic centre of the region, continued to thrive in the 15th century. Even in 1470 the mint of Ayasoluk was one of the most important mints of the Empire. The decline of the city started in the 16th century and was completed in the 17th century. Although the causes of the decline in that period have not been identified, some assumptions can be made about this fact. It is known that it was a city-harbour and its economic activities were based on commerce. Because of sedimentation in the area of the harbour, the latter was blocked and, as a result, marine commercial transactions were interrupted and were conducted by the harbours of Smyrna and Kuşadası. In the 17th century, because of sedimentation, the area became a swamp and, as a result, a malaria epidemic was spread; it became endemic and led to the abandonment of the city and the reduction of population. Besides, the settlement of nomads in the region from the late 16th century onwards and the abandonment of cultivation led in turn to the decline of the city. In the 17th century, the city was already ruined and Δημιουργήθηκε στις 31/1/2017 Σελίδα 1/7
almost deserted. According to Evliya Çelebi, in 1671, the city was a small village. Another considerable part of the population abandoned Ayasoluk in the 18th century. In 1764, the castle was already in ruins and the kadi lived in the village. The decline continued until the 19th century, when the village was deserted during the Greek War of Independence because of the Samian pillage. 6 When the railway line connecting Smyrna with Denizli was constructed and a railway station was built, the village became the centre of transportation for the region. 7 As a result, Ayasoluk became the commercial centre of nearby villages. In 1914, Ayasoluk was renamed Selçuk. On May 22, 1919, the village was captured by the Greek forces. In August 1922, the Christian Orthodox inhabitants of Ayasoluk left their houses and fled to Samos, while on September 8, 1922, the Turkish army occupied the village. 4. Demography In the 15th century, after Ayasoluk was captured by the Ottomans, both Christians and Muslims lived there. The Orthodox Christians dwelled near the aqueduct and the Muslims in the castle and the lower parts of the city. 8 There is no information about the number of inhabitants at the time. In 1461, the number of the inhabitants amounted to approximately 18,000 and the population was on the increase until the mid-16th century, when the population of Ayasoluk started to decrease and the city declined because of sedimentation at the harbour. The decrease is evidenced by the 1575 tax records of the kaza of Ayasoluk. 9 In 1671, Evliya Çelebi visited Ayasoluk, in a period when the city had already become a village. The traveller reports that at the time Ayasoluk included 100 households, 20 shops, a mosque, a filthy small hamam (bath) and a caravanserai. He describes the inhabitants as poor and lazy. None of them was well-off, while there were lots of beggars. However, he states that the castle, the seat of the kadi, which was in good condition, was built on a rock. There were 40 towers and 2 iron gates to the south of Ayasoluk. The castle had 40 soldiers, 20 households and a mosque, while all its streets were stone paved. In addition, Evliya Çelebi reports the glory of Ayasoluk before it became a village, although his text includes several exaggerations. 10 In 1744, there were 40 to 50 households. In the mid-18th century, it seems that the Christian Orthodox population disappeared. They probably moved to new, healthier settlements to the east, such as Kirkince. However, in 1764, the ancient part of Ayasoluk, abandoned in the 17th century, was inhabited by few poor Christian Orthodox peasants. The inhabitants of Ayasoluk lived in small and filthy log huts with clay walls, whose roofs were covered with branches and soil. 11 In 1765, the Turkish nomads Caber settled in Ayasoluk. 12 According to Chandler, Ayasoluk in 1775 was a Muslim village with a few Turkish inhabitants. 13 In the early 19th century, there were 15 to 20 households. During the period 1821-1824, the village was deserted because of the Samian pillage, while in 1863 there were only a few inhabitants. 14 After the new railway line connecting Smyrna with Denizli started to operate, the population of the village increased again. Towards the late 19th century, the population increased even more due to migration from the Aegean Islands, mainly Samos. 15 In the late 19th century, the overall number of inhabitants, both Muslims and Christian Orthodox, amounted to 2,793 people. According to the Archive of Oral Tradition of the Centre for Asia Minor Studies, there were about 200 Christian and 50 Muslim households, although according to another dossier there were 150 Christian and 20 Muslim households. 16 The Christian inhabitants of the village came from various places. Fifty families were from Kirkince and lived there so that they could be close to their landed property. Most of them in winter moved to Kirkince, while in summer they would stay in Ayasoluk to cultivate their land. A couple of members of each family remained in winter in Ayasoluk in order to keep their eye on their property. The rest of the inhabitants came from Crete, Samos, Roumeli (southern Greece), Sokya and Kuşadası. The same source reports that the permanent inhabitants included about 500 Christians and 100 Muslims. Muslim refugees from Macedonia, about 30 families, arrived in Ayasoluk after 1912. Among them there were also Turkish-Cretans, who had already settled in the region after they were turned out of Crete. The refugees built inside the castle, outside the village, a small quarter called Youroukika. 17 The relations between Christians and Muslims were good until World War I. From 1914 onwards, the situation changed against the Christian population. The Greek history was banned from school and the Christian inhabitants were afraid to cultivate their land. However, they were allowed to carry out their religious duties. In 1921, after the village was captured by the Greek forces, Ayasoluk was inhabited by 580 Greeks, 10 Turks and 10 Armenians. 18 As regards the same period, Kontogiannis mentions 350 Greek inhabitants. 19 In the early 20th century, the inhabitants of Ayasoluk spoke both Greek and Turkish. Δημιουργήθηκε στις 31/1/2017 Σελίδα 2/7
5. The Settlement Towards the late 19th and the early 20th century, most houses had one floor, although there were also some with two floors. The houses were made of stones and bricks, while the roof was covered with tiles. In earlier times, there was no water supply system in the village and the houses had their own basins. However, in the early 20th century, there were five to six public faucets in the village, which were the only sources of water. The village included three sparsely populated quarters the Upper Quarter, the Lower Quarter and the quarter of the Station. The church was in the Upper Quarter. In the Lower Quarter there were groceries, butcher s shops and coffee shops. The quarter of the Station included the police station and the village square with coffee shops, groceries, taverns and the hotel. In general, all public buildings, such as the mosque and religious schools (medrese), were built until the late 15th century. There are also references to the construction of a church by the Christian Orthodox of the city in 1464-66, although its patron saint is not mentioned. 20 Among the important buildings of the heyday of Ayasoluk were the castle and the mosque of İsa, which was the only Ottoman building that greatly impressed the visitors of Ayasoluk. For the Christians of the village and the surrounding area, the House of the Virgin Mary, which has survived to date, was one of the important religious buildings. The building is 8 km to the SW of the modern city. According to tradition, four or six years after the Ascension of Jesus, the Virgin Mary came along with St. John to Ephesus and after her death she was buried in this place. Between 1896 and 1914, it became a point of attraction for groups of pilgrims. 21 6. Economy From the Ottoman occupation, in the 15th century, until the end of the same century, Ayasoluk remained an important commercial centre thanks to its harbour, through which exports and imports to and from Asia Minor took place. Throughout the 16th century, Ayasoluk maintained its commercial importance, but in the second half of the 16th century it did not manage to develop further 22 and lost its privileged position. In the 17th century, it did not demonstrate any particular commercial development and maintained this position from the 18th until the 19th century. There were no significant commercial activities in the early 19th century. There was only a coffee shop, which closed down in 1824 because of the Samian pillage. From 1824 until the late 19th century, Ayasoluk looked like a deserted village without any commercial importance. Towards the late 19th and the early 20th century, Ayasoluk became a commercial centre for nearby villages thanks to the railway line. Figs were among the most important goods produced in Ayasoluk. After they were collected, the figs were spread for drying before they were split into categories. The first category of figs was called eleme (sifted). The merchants of Smyrna came to the village, bought large quantities of figs and sent them by train to Smyrna. In Ayasoluk there was a tobacco monopoly, with a large tobacco warehouse near the railway station. Other goods produced were milk, cheese, goat wool, wheat, barley, sesame, chickpeas, beans, corn and cotton, which were sent to Kuşadası. The people practised animal breeding, which served the needs of the locals. The landed property of the village, most of which belonged to the inhabitants of Kirkince, was gathered around River Cayster. The Christian inhabitants of Kirkince owned land, gardens, vineyards and olive trees. The Muslim inhabitants were mainly stock breeders. They also carried goods with camels. Men and women from Kuşadası, Ikonio, Samos and other islands arrived and worked in the fields or collected figs. The salt pans were very important thanks to the Menderes River. They were hired through auction, with the participation of both Muslims and Christians. The contract lasted for two or three years. The Cossacks who lived by the river in temporary shacks were professional fishermen. The village did not have a central market although the shops (coffee shops, groceries and taverns) were gathered around the station. Along the way to Kuşadası there were some shops and the place was called Lower Market. Every Friday Muslims from nearby villages would go and sell their products, while the inhabitants of the small Muslim villages shopped in Ayasoluk. The inhabitants of Ayasoluk bought staple commodities from the groceries of the village. The most important commercial transactions of the village were carried out with Kuşadası and Smyrna. The inhabitants sold figs, milk, goat wool, chick-peas, beans and sesame to Kuşadası, as well as figs, their main product, and fabrics to Smyrna. The goods were carried to Kuşadası and Smyrna by train. 7. Administration Δημιουργήθηκε στις 31/1/2017 Σελίδα 3/7
Between 1425 and 1876, Ayasoluk was governed by a kadi, who lived in the castle. After the city declined and became a village, his position in the hierarchy was downgraded. In 1671, the kadi and 40 soldiers were living in the castle of Ayasoluk. In 1764, the castle was already ruined and the kadi was living in the village. After 1876, Ayasoluk was inferior to Kuşadası, and became a nahiye, an administrative status maintained until May 22, 1919. During that period, the müdür was responsible for the administration of Ayasoluk. In the 20th century, there was a police station with three or four officers and about thirty constables. The Christians of the village had their own board, which was called church board. From the late May 1919 onwards, after the region was captured by the Greek forces, the Greek police was stationed and remained there until the early September 1922. 8. Church In the 20th century, Ayasoluk was under the Diocese of Heliopolis and Theateira. The one and only church of the village was St. John the Theologian, where a priest officiated. The church was next to the old castle and the date of foundation remains unknown. There was no primatial churchwarden in Ayasoluk, thus the inhabitants were served by the primatial churchwarden of Kirkince. The Christian Orthodox inhabitants were provided their marriage licences by Kirkince. The second religious monument, apart from the abovementioned House of the Virgin Mary, was the ancient Budrum, situated within 2-3 km to the west of Ayasoluk. It was famous because the Seven Sleepers had slept in one of the caves. A Liturgy was held there on the celebration day of the Seven Sleepers. 9. Schools According to relevant information, schools for boys and girls operated in Ayasoluk already from 1883. 23 The building that housed the village schools was near the command post. It was a big house, where classes were given in only one room. According to the Archive of Oral Tradition of the Centre for Asia Minor Studies, the school had one teacher and about 20 students. 24 In the school year 1921-22, the school was mixed and there was a male and a female teacher. The classes included 49 male and 44 female students. 25 1. Akgündüz, A., Osmanlı kanunnâmeleri ve hukukî tahlilleri, vol. 1 (İstanbul 1994) p. 592. 2. Akgündüz, A., Osmanlı kanunnâmeleri ve hukukî tahlilleri, vol. 1 (İstanbul 1994) p. 73. 3. Evliya Çelebi, Evliya Çelebi s eyahetnamesi: Anadolu, Suriye, Hicaz (1671-72), vol. 9 (İstanbul 1935) p. 137. 4. Foss, C., Ephesus after Antiquity: A late antique Byzantine and Turkish city (Cambridge, New York, Sydney, New Rochelle, Melbourne 1979) p. 170. 5. Türkmen dynasty founded in the early 14th century in the western Asia Minor. The founder of the dynasty was called Mehmed Bey. In 1425 or 1426, the region of the dynasty was captured by the Ottomans. For more information, see Uzunçarşılı, İ.H., Osmanli Tarihi, vol. 1, Anadolu Selçukluları ve Anadolu Beylikleri hakkında bir mukaddime ile Osmanlı Devleti'nın kuruluşundan İstanbul'un fethine kadar (Ankara 1988) pp. 65-73. 6. Foss, C., Ephesus after Antiquity: A late antique Byzantine and Turkish city (Cambridge, New York, Sydney, New Rochelle, Melbourne 1979) pp. 176, 179. 7. See Κοντογιάννη, Π., Η ελληνικότης των νομών Προύσης και Σμύρνης (Athens 1919) pp. 68-69. 8. Foss, C., Ephesus after Antiquity: A late antique Byzantine and Turkish city (Cambridge, New York, Sydney, New Rochelle, Melbourne 1979) p. Δημιουργήθηκε στις 31/1/2017 Σελίδα 4/7
175. 9. Cook, M. A., Population pressure in rural Anatolia 1450-1600, London Oriental Series, vol. 27 (London, New York, Toronto 1972) p. 82. 10. Evliya Çelebi, Evliya Çelebi s eyahetnamesi: Anadolu, Suriye, Hicaz (1671-72), vol. 9 (İstanbul 1935) pp. 136-138. 11. See Foss, C., Ephesus after Antiquity: A late antique Byzantine and Turkish city (Cambridge, New York, Sydney, New Rochelle, Melbourne 1979) pp. 175-177. 12. See Foss, C., Ephesus after Antiquity: A late antique Byzantine and Turkish city (Cambridge, New York, Sydney, New Rochelle, Melbourne 1979) p. 179. 13. See Chandler, R., Travel in Asia Minor: or an account of a tour made at the expense of the society of dilettanti (Dublin 1775) p. 114. 14. See Foss, C., Ephesus after Antiquity: A late antique Byzantine and Turkish city (Cambridge, New York, Sydney, New Rochelle, Melbourne 1979) p. 179. 15. See Κοντογιάννη, Π., Η ελληνικότης των νομών Προύσης και Σμύρνης (Athens 1919) pp. 68-69, 178. 16. Κέντρο Μικρασιατικών Σπουδών, Αρχεία Προφορικής Παράδοσης, Περιφέρεια Σμύρνης, Επαρχία Ιωνίας, τμήματος Κουσάδασι, Αγιασολούκ, no. Ι 21. 17. Κέντρο Μικρασιατικών Σπουδών, Αρχεία Προφορικής Παράδοσης, Περιφέρεια Σμύρνης, Επαρχία Ιωνίας, τμήματος Κουσάδασι, Αγιασολούκ, no. Ι 40. 18. Νοταράς, Μ., Εις την Ιωνίαν Αιολίαν και Λυδίαν πριν πενήντα χρόνια (Athens December 1972) p. 95. 19. Κοντογιάννης, Π. Μ., Γεωγραφία της Μικράς Ασίας (Athens 1921) p. 320. 20. See Foss, C., Ephesus after Antiquity: A late antique Byzantine and Turkish city (Cambridge, New York, Sydney, New Rochelle, Melborn 1979) pp. 171-172. 21. Hazretı Meyrem Ana Evi, Ο οίκος της Παναγίας: οδηγός Δι Επίσκεψιν αυτού μεταφρασθείς εκ του Γαλλικού Guide Senior Panaya Kapulu Έφεσος (Constantinople 1953) pp. 9-11. 22. See Faroqhi, S., The development of the Anatolian urban network during the sixteenth century, in Peasants, Dervishes and traders in the Ottoman Empire (London 1989), VIII, p. 280, and Faroqhi, S., Sixteenth century periodic markets in various Anatolian Sanjaks: Icel, Hamid, Karahisar-i Sahib, Kutahya, Aydin and Mentese, in Peasants, Dervishes and traders in the Ottoman Empire (London 1989), VII, p. 62. 23. See Σολδάτος, Χ., Η εκπαιδευτική και πνευματική κίνηση του Ελληνισμού της Μ. Ασίας (1800-1922), v. I: Η Γέννηση και η εξέλιξη των σχολείων (Athens 1989) p. 199. 24. Κέντρο Μικρασιατικών Σπουδών, Αρχεία Προφορικής Παράδοσης, Περιφέρεια Σμύρνης, Επαρχία Ιωνίας, τμήματος Κουσάδασι, Αγιασολούκ, no. Ι 40. 25. See Μιχαηλίδης-Νουάρος, Μ., Η εκπαιδευτική πολιτική της Ελλάδος εις την εντός της Ζώνης των Σεβρών Μικρασιατικήν περιοχήν, Μικρασιατικά Χρονικά 6 (1955) p. 51. Βιβλιογραφία : Δημιουργήθηκε στις 31/1/2017 Σελίδα 5/7
Κοντογιάννης Π., Γεωγραφία της Μικράς Ασίας. Φυσική σύστασις της χώρας, πολιτική γεωγραφία, φυσικός πλούτος, Αθήναι 1921 Σολδάτος Χ., Η εκπαιδευτική και πνευματική κίνηση του ελληνισμού της Μικράς Ασίας (1800-1922), Α': Η γέννηση και η εξέλιξη των σχολείων, Αθήνα 1989 Foss C., Ephesus after Antiquity. A Late Αntique, Byzantine, and Turkish City, Cambridge Mass. New York 1979 Κοντογιάννης Π., Η ελληνικότης των νομών Προύσης και Σμύρνης, Αθήναι 1919 Νοταράς Μ., Εις την Ιωνίαν Αιολίαν και Λυδίαν, Αθήνα Δεκέμβριος 1972 Μιχαηλίδης-Νουάρος Μ., "Η εκπαιδευτική πολιτική της Ελλάδος εις την εντός της Ζώνης των Σεβρών Μικρασιατικήν περιοχήν", Μικρασιατικά Χρονικά, 6, 1955, 3-72 Descuffi J., Hazretı Meyrem Ana Evi, ο οίκος της Παναγίας: οδηγός δι επίσκεψιν, Κωνσταντινούπολη 1953 Cook M.A., Population pressure in rural Anatolia 1450-1600, London, New York, Toronto 1972, London Oriental Series, v. 27 Faroqhi S., "The development of the Anatolian urban network during the sixteenth century", Faroqhi, S. (ed.), Dervishes and traders in the Ottoman Empire, London 1989, 265-303 Faroqhi S., "Sixteenth century periodic markets in various Anatolian Sancaks: Icel, Hamid, Karahisar? Sahi, Kutahya, Ayd?n and Mentese", Faroqhi, S. (ed.), Peasants, Dervishes and Traders in the Ottoman Empire, London 1989, 32-80 Chandler R., Travel in Asia Minor: or an account of tour made at the expense of the society of dilettante, Dublin 1775 Γλωσσάριo : kadi Office that combinbed judicial, notarial and administrative duties. The kadi, who held court at the kaza's seat, registered all legal acts and documents in the court's codices (sicil). The kadi passed judgement based on the saria (the holy law of Islam), taking also into consideration the kanun (sultanic law) and the customary law (örf). Resort to his court had all the subjects of the Empire. The kadi had also administrative duties, which he performed in collaboration with the officials of the kaza., and he had to supervise tax collection. kaymakamlık Ottoman administrative unit that replaced the kaza during the late Ottoman Period, after the administrative reforms of 1864. kaza The basic grade of the Ottoman provincial administration. It included the surrounding region of a city or a town. During the late Ottoman Period it is identified with the kaymakamlık. müdir (müdür) Lower official of provincial administration in the late Ottoman Empire, head of a subdistrict (müdirlik). müdürlük Small administrative unit in the late Ottoman Empire, subdistrict of a kaymakamlık, under the jurisdiction of a müdür. mutasarrıflık A medium-sized Ottoman administrative unit that replaced the sancak during the Late Ottoman Period, after the administrative reforms of 1864. Δημιουργήθηκε στις 31/1/2017 Σελίδα 6/7
nahiye A small administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire, subdivision of the kaza. sancak (liva) Medium sized unit of provincial administration of the Ottoman state, throughout its history. A subdivision of the early Ottoman eyalet (or beylerbeylik) and the later Ottoman vilayet. In the late Ottoman Period it was known also as mutasarrıflık. vilayet (valilik) The larger administrative unit in the Ottoman provincial administration system. The large provinces of the Ottoman Empire were previously called eyalet. The new regulation of 1864 introduced the vilayet as an equivalent of the French départment - albeit of smaller size. The governor of the vilayet was called vali and had extensive authority. Πηγές Akgündüz, A., Osmanlı kanunnâmeleri ve hukukî tahlilleri, τομ. 1, 5 (İstanbul 1994) Evliya Çelebi, Evliya Çelebi seyahetnamesi: Anadolu, Suriye, Hicaz (1671 72), τομ. 9 (İstanbul 1935) Κέντρο Μικρασιατικών Σπουδών, Αρχεία Προφορικής Παράδοσης, Περιφέρεια Σμύρνης, Επαρχία Ιωνίας, τμήματος Κουσάντασι, Αγιασολούκ, αρ. Ι 40 Κέντρο Μικρασιατικών Σπουδών, Αρχεία Προφορικής Παράδοσης, Περιφέρεια Σμύρνης, Επαρχία Ιωνίας, Τμήματος Σμύρνης, Κιρκιτζές, αρ. Ι 21 Δημιουργήθηκε στις 31/1/2017 Σελίδα 7/7