Physics and Radiobiology of Nuclear Medicine

Transcript

1 Physics and Radiobiology of Nuclear Medicine

2 Gopal B. Saha, Ph.D. Physics and Radiobiology of Nuclear Medicine Fourth Edition 1 3

3 Gopal B. Saha, Ph.D. Emeritus Staff Cleveland Clinic Cleveland, OH USA ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London Library of Congress Control Number: Springer Science+Business Media New York 1993, 2001, 2006, 2013 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (

4 To All my benefactors

5 Preface The fourth edition of this book has been prompted by a need to provide up-to-date information in keeping up with perpetual growth and improvement in instrumentation and techniques employed in nuclear medicine since its last edition in Like the past editions, the book is intended for the radiology and nuclear medicine residents to prepare for the American Board of Nuclear Medicine, American Board of Radiology and American Board of Science in Nuclear Medicine examinations, all of which require strong physics background. Also, it will serve as a textbook on nuclear medicine physics and instrumentation for nuclear medicine technologists taking the Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board examination. The organization of the book has been kept the same as in the previous editions consisting of 16 chapters starting with basics in initial chapters and then progressing into more developed techniques in later chapters. Chapters 1 4, 6, 8 and 11 have no major changes. An expanded description of a cyclotron and two examples of calculation of yield of activity produced are added to Chapter 5 along with the updating of Table 5.1. Chapter 7 includes additional information on the ion chamber survey meter, proportional counter, and G-M counter. The section on solid state digital cameras has been revised in Chapter 9. In Chapter 10, several changes have been made, namely, an expanded collimator section, a detailed description of contrast, and a more detailed quality control section. Changes in Chapter 12 include: detailed iterative reconstruction method, description of CT scanners in SPECT/CT, detailed description of attenuation correction in SPECT/ CT, and expanded sections on partial volume effects and quality control of CT scanners. Included in Chapter 13 are: upgraded information on detectors and PET scanners; a new section on PET/MR including the attenuation correction method and its quality control tests; the time of flight technique; several scatter correction techniques; and a section on accreditation of nuclear medicine and PET facilities. Doses in Table 14.4 have been updated, and new tables with revised pediatric dosages have been included in Chapter 14. For consistency, the section, Sources of Radiation exposure in USA has been removed from Chapter 16 and added to Chapter 15 with revised data, while the sections Dirty Bombs, Verification Card for Radioactive Patients and Radiation Phobia have been moved from vii

6 viii Preface Chapter 15 and added to Chapter 16. European Regulations Governing Radiations in Chapter 16 has been revised. A number of figures and tables have been added for better explanation of the text contents throughout the book. It has been a great pleasure to work with, for which I am ever grateful to, Andrew Moyer, Senior Editor of Clinical Medicine at Springer, for his sincere support during the publication of several of my books by Springer including this one. I would like to thank Ian Hayes, Editorial Assistant, and Joseph Quatela, Senior Production Editor of Springer for their support in the production of this book. Gopal B. Saha, Ph.D.

7 Contents Preface... vii Chapter 1 Structure of Matter... 1 Matter and Energy... 1 Radiation... 2 The Atom... 3 Electronic Structure of the Atom... 3 Structure of the Nucleus... 6 Nuclear Binding Energy... 7 Nuclear Nomenclature... 8 Chart of the Nuclides... 8 Questions Suggested Readings Chapter 2 Radioactive Decay Spontaneous Fission Isomeric Transition Gamma (γ)-ray Emission Internal Conversion Alpha (α)-decay Beta (β )-Decay Positron (β + )-Decay Electron Capture Questions Suggested Readings Chapter 3 Kinetics of Radioactive Decay Radioactive Decay Equations General Equation Half-Life Mean Life Effective Half-Life ix

8 x Contents Units of Radioactivity Specific Activity Calculation Successive Decay Equations General Equation Transient Equilibrium Secular Equilibrium Questions Suggested Readings Chapter 4 Statistics of Radiation Counting Error, Accuracy, and Precision Mean and Standard Deviation Gaussian Distribution Standard Deviation of Count Rates Propagation of Errors Chi-Square Test Minimum Detectable Activity Evaluation of Diagnostic Tests Questions Suggested Readings Chapter 5 Production of Radionuclides Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides Reactor-Produced Radionuclides Fission or (n, f) Reaction Neutron Capture or (n,γ) Reaction Target and Its Processing Equation for Production of Radionuclides Radionuclide Generators Mo 99m TcGenerator Cyclotron production of 99m Tc Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 6 Interaction of Radiation with Matter Interaction of Charged Particles with Matter Specific Ionization Linear Energy Transfer Range Bremsstrahlung Annihilation Interaction of γ-radiations with Matter Mechanism of Interaction of γ-radiations Attenuation of γ-radiations Interaction of Neutrons with Matter... 75

9 Contents xi Questions Suggested Readings Chapter 7 Gas-Filled Detectors Principles of Gas-Filled Detectors Ionization Chambers Ion Chamber Survey Meter Dose Calibrator Pocket Dosimeter Proportional Counters Geiger Müller Counters Questions Suggested Readings Chapter 8 Scintillation and Semiconductor Detectors Scintillation Detectors Solid Scintillation Detectors Solid-State Detectors Solid Scintillation Counters NaI(Tl) Detector Photomultiplier Tube Preamplifier Linear Amplifier Pulse-Height Analyzer Display or Storage Gamma-Ray Spectrometry Photopeak Compton Valley, Edge, and Plateau Characteristic X-Ray Peak Backscatter Peak Iodine Escape Peak Annihilation Peak Coincidence Peak Liquid Scintillation Counters Characteristics of Counting Systems Energy Resolution Detection Efficiency Dead Time Gamma Well Counters Calibration of Well Counters Counting in Well Counters Effects of Sample Volume Thyroid Probe Thyroid Uptake Measurement Questions Suggested Readings

10 xii Contents Chapter 9 Gamma Cameras Gamma Cameras Principles of Operation Detector Collimator Photomultiplier Tube X-, Y-Positioning Circuit Pulse-Height Analyzer Display and Storage Digital Cameras Solid State Digital Cameras Questions Suggested Readings Chapter 10 Performance Parameters of Gamma Cameras Spatial Resolution Intrinsic Resolution Collimator Resolution Scatter Resolution Evaluation of Spatial Resolution Bar Phantom Line-Spread Function Modulation Transfer Function Sensitivity Collimator Efficiency Uniformity Pulse-Height Variation Nonlinearity Edge Packing Gamma Camera Tuning Effects of High Counting Rates Contrast Quality Control Tests for Gamma Cameras Daily Checks Weekly Checks Monthly Checks Annual, Semiannual, or As-Needed Checks Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 11 Digital Computers in Nuclear Medicine Basics of a Computer Central Processing Unit Computer Memory External Storage Devices

11 Contents xiii Input/Output Devices Operation of a Computer Digitization of Analog Data Digital-to-Analog Conversion Digital Images Application of Computers in Nuclear Medicine Digital Data Acquisition Static Study Dynamic Study Gated Study Reconstruction of Images Fusion and Subtraction of Images Display Software and DICOM PACS Questions Suggested Readings Chapter 12 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography Tomographic Imaging Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography Data Acquisition Image Reconstruction SPECT/CT Factors Affecting SPECT Performance of SPECT Cameras Spatial Resolution Sensitivity Other Parameters Quality Control Tests for SPECT Cameras Daily Tests Weekly Tests Quality Control Tests for CT Scanners Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 13 Positron Emission Tomography PET Radiopharmaceuticals Detectors in PET Scanners PM Tubes and Pulse-Height Analyzers PET Scanners Block Detectors Coincidence Timing Window PET/CT Scanners PET/MR Scanners

12 xiv Contents Principles of MR Imaging MR scanner Commercial PET/MR Scanners Mobile PET or PET/CT Micro-PET Dual- and Triple-Head Gamma Cameras Data Acquisition Time of Flight Method Two-Dimensional Versus Three-Dimensional Data Acquisition Image Reconstruction Factors Affecting PET Normalization Photon Attenuation Correction Random Coincidences Scatter Coincidences Dead Time Radial Elongation Performance of PET Scanners Spatial Resolution Sensitivity Noise Equivalent Count Rate Quality Control Tests for PET Scanners Daily Tests Weekly Tests Quality Control Tests for MR Scanners Accreditation of Nuclear Medicine and PET Facilities Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 14 Internal Radiation Dosimetry Radiation Units Dose Calculation Radiation Dose Rate Cumulative Radiation Dose Radiation Dose in SI Units Effective Dose Equivalent and Effective Dose Pediatric Dosages Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 15 Radiation Biology The Cell Effects of Radiation DNA Molecule Chromosome

13 Contents xv Direct and Indirect Actions of Radiation Radiosensitivity of Cells Cell Survival Curves Factors Affecting Radiosensitivity Dose Rate Linear Energy Transfer Chemicals Stage of Cell Cycle Apoptosis Classification of Radiation Damage Sources of Radiation Exposure in the United States Stochastic and Deterministic Effects Acute Effects of Total Body Irradiation Hemopoietic Syndrome Gastrointestinal Syndrome Cerebrovascular Syndrome Long-Term Effects of Radiation Somatic Effects Genetic Effects Risk Versus Benefit in Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine Risk to Pregnant Women Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 16 Radiation Regulations and Protection License Radiation Protection Definition of Terms Caution Signs and Labels Occupational Dose Limits ALARA Program Principles of Radiation Protection Personnel Monitoring Dos and Don ts in Radiation Protection Practice Bioassay Receiving and Monitoring of Radioactive Packages Radioactive Waste Disposal Radioactive Spill Recordkeeping Medical Uses of Radioactive Materials Applications, Amendments, and Notifications Authority and Responsibilities of the Licensee Supervision Mobile Nuclear Medicine Service Written Directives

14 xvi Contents Measurement of Dosages Calibration, Transmission, and Reference Sources Requirement for Possession of Sealed Sources Labeling of Vials and Syringes Surveys of Ambient Radiation Exposure Rate Calibration of Survey Instruments Training and Experience Requirements for Medical Uses of By-Product Materials Report and Notification of a Medical Event Report and Notification of a Dose to an Embryo/Fetus or a Nursing Child Release of Patients Administered with Radiopharmaceuticals Recordkeeping Dirty Bombs Types of Accidental Radiation Exposure Protective Measures in Case of Explosion of a Dirty Bomb Verification Card for Radioactive Patients Radiation Phobia Transportation of Radioactive Materials European Regulations Governing Radiation Questions References and Suggested Readings Appendix A Units and Constants Appendix B Terms Used in Text Appendix C Answers to Questions Index