Greek GCSE Syntax 2015-16 For revision
1 1 Standard uses of the cases 2 Nominative: Subject Vocative: for addressing people Accusative: Direct Object Genitive: of Dative: to, for (can take on the uses of a Latin ABLATIVE, i.e. by, with ) Expressions of time and place Time 1) Time how long ( duration) is expressed in the Accusative. ποσον χρονον ἐμεινατε ἐν τῃ πολει; = for how long did you stay in the city? 2) Time within which is expressed in the Genitive νυκτος= during the night; πεντε ἡμερων = within five days 3) Time when is expressed in the Dative τῃ τριτῃ ἡμερᾳ ἀφικομεθα τῃ ὑστεραιᾳ οἰκαδε ἐσπευσαμεν = on the third day we arrived = we hurried home on the next day Place Learn these prepositions: ἀνα + acc ἀπο +gen δια + gen εἰς +acc ἐκ + gen ἐν + dat ἐπι +acc up from through into, to out of, from in, among against, on to, on, at
2 3 κατα +acc κατα γην παρα + gen περι + acc down, along by land from round The Genitive of Comparison Whereas Latin uses the Ablative of Comparison, in Greek the Genitive is used: ὁ ἀνηρ μειζων ἐστι του παιδος = the man is bigger than the boy [If this construction is not used, Greek uses ἠ + same case, rather as Latin has Quam + same case, e.g. ὁ ἀνηρ μειζων ἐστιν ἠ ὁ παις The Genitive of comparison works with comparative adverbs too: οἱ Ἑλληνες ἐμαχοντο ἀνδρειοτερον των Περσων = the Greeks fought more bravely than the Persians A word in the dative can accompany comparatives to show the degree of difference: ὁ ἀνηρ πολλῳ μειζων ἐστι του παιδος = the man is much bigger than the boy. Positive ἀγαθος Comparative ἀμεινων βελτιων Superlative ἀριστος βελτιστος αἰσχρος αἰσχιων αἰσχιστος ἀληθης ἀληθεστερος ἀληθεστατος ἀσθενης weak ἀσθενεστερος ἀσθενεστατος βραδυς βραδυτερος βραδυτατος δεινος δεινοτερος δεινοτατος δυστυχης δυστυχεστερος δυστυχεστατος ἐλευθερος ἐλευθερωτερος ἐλευθερωτατος εὐρυς εὐρυτερος εἰρυτατος εὐτυχης εὐτυχεστερος εὐτυχεστατος ἐχθρος ἐχθιων ἐχθιστος ἰσχυρος ἰσχυροτερος ἰσχυροτατος
3 κακος κακιων χειρων κακιστος χειριστος καλος καλλιων καλλιστος μεγας μειζων μεγιστος μικρος μικροτερος μειων μικροτατος νεος νεωτερος νεωτατος ὀλιγος little ἡσσων ὀλιγιστος ὀλιγος few ἐλασσων ἐλαχιστος πλουσιος πλουσιωτερος πλουσιωτατος πολυς πλειων πλεων πλειστος ῥᾳδιος ῥᾳων ῥᾳστος σοφος σοφωτερος σοφωτατος ταχυς θασσων ταχιστος ὑψηλος ὑψηλοτερος ὑψηλοτατος χαλεπος χαλεπωτερος χαλεπωτατος 4 For cases taken by verbs and prepositions: see the word list B402 5 Direct Commands and Prohibitions (2 nd person only) Commands ( Do X ) are expressed in the Imperative. If the command is a general one ( honour your father and mother, then the command is expressed with the Present Imperative. If the command refers to a single occasion ( come in ), then the Aorist Imperative is used. πειθεσθε τοις νομοις τιματε τους τεκοντας = obey the laws [ Present Imperative] = honour your parents [ Present Imperative] σιγατε εἰσελθετε σιγησον = keep quiet! [ Present Imperative, i.e. keep on keeping quiet ] = come in [Aorist Imperative] = keep quiet [Aorist Imperative, ie just this once]
4 Prohibitions Prohibitions ( i.e. don t do X) are expressed in Greek either with the Present Imperative ( for general prohibitions) or the Aorist Subjunctive for single occasions. The negative used is always μη μη μισειτε τους πολεμιους = do not hate the enemy [Present Imperative, so a general prohibition] μη κωλυσῃς με ἐξιεναι = don t prevent me from going out [Aorist Subjunctive, so a one-off ] 6 Direct Questions ἀρα introduces a question ( like -ne on the end of the first word in Latin) ἀρ οὐ introduces a question to which it is expected the answer will be yes (like nonne in Latin. ἀρα μη introduces a question to which it is expected the answer will be no (like num in Latin.) που; = where? ποι; = to where? ποτε; = when? πως; = how? τις; = who? τι; = what? ποσος; = how big, how much? ποσοι; = how many? ποιος; = what sort of? δια τι; = why?
5 7 Indirect Statements Greek has a wider choice of usage than Latin. There are THREE main types. A. λεγω ὁτι + finite verb ( i.e. not an infinitive) = I say that. The verb in the ὁτι clause is put into the same tense as that of the original direct speech, e.g. ἡ παρθενος λεγει ὁτι ἡ μητηρ προς την πολιν εἰσερχεται = the girl says that her mother is going to the city. When the ὁτι clause is introduced by a main verb in a past tense, the ὁτι clause may either work in the same way: ἡ παρθενος εἰπεν ὁτι ἡ μητηρ προς την πολιν εἰσερχεται = the girl said that her mother was going to the city. [ Her original direct speech is still she is going ] Or its verb may be put into the same tense of the optative: ἡ παρθενος εἰπεν ὁτι ἡ μητηρ προς την πολιν βαινοι = the girl said that her mother was going to the city. ἡ παρθενος εἰπεν ὁτι ἡ μητηρ προς την πολιν εἰσελθοι = the girl said that her mother had gone to the city. (Here the Aorist Optative reflects original speech she went/ has gone. )
6 B. Greek may also, like Latin, use an Accusative and Infinitive construction 1 : ἡ μητηρ ἐφη την μητερα προς την πολιν εἰσελθειν. = the girl said that her mother had gone into the city. [The Aorist Infinitive reflects the original direct speech she went/ has gone into. ] οὐκ ἐφη Whereas Latin uses nego for I say that not, Greek uses a part of οὐ φημι ἡ παρθενος οὐκ ἐφη την μητερα προς την πολιν εἰσελθειν = the girl said that her mother had not gone to the city. Be careful to distinguish the meaning of the 3 infinitives: ὁ ναυτης φησι τους πολεμιους φευγειν/ φυγειν/ φευξεσθαι The sailor says the enemy are fleeing/ have fled/ will flee ὁ ναυτης ἔφη τους πολεμιους φευγειν/ φυγειν/ φευξεσθαι The sailor said the enemy were fleeing/ had fled/ would flee Normally you will only see this verb in the 3 rd person, but check that you know both the present and the imperfect: Present Tense φημί φῄς φησί φαμέν φατέ φασί Imperfect Tense ἔφην ἔφησθα ἔφη ἔφαμεν ἔφατε ἔφασαν If the subject of the infinitive clause is the same as the subject of the main verb, a Nominative and Infinitive is used: οἱ Ἀχαρνης ἐφασαν αὐτοι ἀνδρειοτατοι εἰναι των Ἀθηναιων The Acharnians said that they {i.e. they themselves} were the bravest of the Athenians. 1 TAYLOR 2.134, 272
7 Sometimes we can find a Nominative and Infinitive as well as an Accusative and Infinitive construction in the same sentence: ἐπιστευεν αὐτος μεν ἀνδρειος εἰναι, ἐκεινους δε μωρους εἰναι = he thought that he [himself] was brave, but that they were foolish. The above indirect statements deal with verbs of saying and thinking (νομίζω). C. But if the indirect statement contains a verb of knowing or perceiving, then Greek uses an Accusative ( or Nominative) and Participle. E.g. ἡ παρθενος εἰδε την μητερα εἰς την πολιν εἰσελθουσαν = the girl saw that her mother had gone into the town; literally: the girl saw her mother having gone into the town. ὁρω ὑμας πολλα και κακα πασχοντας = I see that you suffer many terrible things; literally: I see you suffering many and terrible things. οἰδα ὀψομενος ὑμας τριων ἡμερων = I know that I will see you within three days. Make certain that you know the Present of οἰδα, I know : οἰδα οἰσθα οἰδε ἰσμεν ἰστε ἰσασι *The infinitive to know is εἰδεναι and the participle is εἰδως εἰδυια εἰδος
8 8 Indirect Commands Very easy in Greek. Use the infinitive. κελευω ὑμας [ μη ] εὐθυς ἐξιεναι = I order you [ not to] to go out immediately. 9 Indirect Questions These do not have the subjunctive, as in Latin. If the main verb is Primary ( is not Historic), the verb in the Indirect Question is put into the same tense of the indicative as the original direct question. Eg: ἡ παρθενος ἐρωτᾳ δια τι ἡ μητηρ εἰς την πολιν εἰερχεται = the girl asks why her mother is going into city. ἡ παρθενος ἐρωτᾳ ποτε ἡ μητηρ εἰς την πολιν εἰσηλθεν = the girl asks when her mother went into the city. If the main verb is Historic, then the verb in the Indirect Question may be put into the Optative. ἡ παρθενος ἠρετο δια τι ἡ μητηρ εἰς την πολιν βαινοι = the girl asked why her mother was going into the city. την παρθενον ἠρομην ποτε ἡ μητηρ εἰς την πολιν εἰσελθοι = I asked the girl when her mother had gone into the city.
9 10 Purpose Clauses with ἱνα; also with ὡς +Future Participle Purpose Clauses with ἱνα take the subjunctive in Primary Sequence; if the main verb is Historic, the Subjunctive is sometimes turned into the Optative. ἡ μητηρ εἰς την πολιν βαινει ἱνα την παρθενον ἰδῃ [ subjunctive]= the mother is going into the city in order to see the girl. αἱ μητερες εἰς την πολιν βαινουσι ἱνα τας παρθενους ἰδωσι [ subjunctive]= the mothers are going into the city in order to see the girls. ἡ μητηρ εἰς την πολιν ἐβη ἱνα την παρθενον ἰδοι [ optative] or ἰδῃ [sub junctive]= the mother went into the city in order to see the girl. αἱ μητερες εἰς την πολιν ἐβησαν ἱνα τας παρθενοθς ἰδοιεν [ optative] or ἰδωσι [ subjunctive]= the mothers went into the city to see the girls Purpose Clauses with ὡς + Future Participle ἡ μητηρ εἰς την πολιν βαινει ὡς ὀψομενη την παρθενον = the mother is going into the city in order to see the girl. Literally: the mother is going into the cityas-being-about-to-see the girl.
10 11 Relative Clauses with ὁς ἡ ὁ Check that you know the endings of the relative pronoun: Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative ὁς ἡ ὁ οἱ αἱ ἁ Accusative ὁν ἡν ὁ οὑς ἁς ἁ Genitive οὑ ἡς οὑ ὡν ὡν ὡν Dative ᾡ ᾑ ᾡ οἱς αἱς οἱς As in Latin ( with qui-quae-quod), the number and gender of the relative pronoun are the same as in the main clause but the case depends on what it is doing in its own clause. ἡ παρθενος ἡ οἰκοι μενει ἀδελφη ἐμη ἐστιν = the girl who is staying at home is my sister ἡ παρθενος ἡν οἰκοι μενουσαν εἰδες ἐμη ἀδελφη ἐστιν = the girl whom you saw staying at home is my sister. ὁ δουλος οὑ δεσποτην οὐχ ὁρᾳς ῥᾳθυμος ἐστιν= the slave whose master you do not see is lazy. οἱ παιδες οἱς διαλεγομεθα οὐ λεγουσι τα ἀληθη = the children to whom we are talking do not tell the truth. οἱ παιδες μεθ ὡν βαινομεν οἰκοι μενειν βουλονται = the children with whom we are walking want to stay at home.
11 12 Result Clauses Unlike in Latin, the subjunctive is not used. infinitive ὡστε is commonly followed by the οὑτω σοφως λεγει ὡστε πειθειν παντας τους πολιτας = he speaks so wisely that he persuades all the citizens. If the result clause contains a new subject, that subject is put into the Accusative, just as would happen in an Accusative and Infinitive construction: οὑτως ἀνδρειοι εἰσιν ὡστε τους πολεμιους φοβεισθαι. = they are so brave that the enemy are afraid. The negative is μη: οὑτως ἀνδρειος ἐστιν ὡστε μη φοβεισθαι μηδεν = he is so brave that he does not fear anything **But if there is stress on the occurrence actually happening, the indicative is used. αἱ γυναικες οὑτως ἀνδρειως την πολιν ἐφυλασσον ὡστε οἱ πολεμιοι ἐφυγον. = the women guarded the city so bravely that the enemy fled. Sometimes ὡστε is placed at the beginning of a new sentence: σοφωτατος ἐστιν. ὡστε παντες αὐτον θαυναζουσιν = He is very wise. And so (with the result that) everybody admires him. The negative for this type is οὐ
12 13 Conditional Clauses: Future Open and Past Unfulfilled Future Open These are either done with ἐαν + subjunctive or εἰ + future indicative. The negative is μή in the IF-clause (protasis), but οὐ in the answering part (apodosis). A. ἐαν + subjunctive ἐαν ἡ παρθενος την μητερα ἰδῃ, γελασεται = if the girl sees her mother, she will laugh. ἐαν οἱ πολεμιοι ἀφικωνται, μαχουμεθα = if the enemy arrive, we will fight. A. εἰ + future indicative (*often used in a threat or warning) εἰ ἡ παρθενος την μητερα ὀψεται, γελασεται = if the girl sees her mother, she will laugh. εἰ οἱ πολεμιοι ἀφιξονται, μαχουμεθα = if the enemy arrive, we will fight. * εἰ τοῦτο ποιήσεις, ἀποθανῇ = if you do this, you will be killed Past Unfulfilled Conditionals In Latin a Closed/ Unfulfilled Condition in the past is expressed with two Pluperfect Subjunctives: si hostes superavissemus, bene egissemus = if we had beaten the enemy, we would have acted well.
13 In Greek we do not use the Subjunctive. We use two Aorist Indicatives and we put ἀν in the second half: If the citizens had not guarded the gates, the city would have been taken εἰ οἱ πολῖται μὴ ἐφύλαξαν τὰς πύλας, ἐλήφθη ἂν ἡ πόλις. 14 Temporal Clauses with the Indicative ἐπει σε εἰς την πολιν εἰσιδοντα εἰδον σοι ἀπεκριναμην = when I saw you coming into the city I answered you. ἑως εἰρηνη ἠν οἱ πολιται οὐκ εὐτυχεις ἠσαν = until there was peace the citizens were not lucky
14 15 Participles 1. Genitive Absolute; 2. Concessive with καιπερ; 3. Article and Participle; 4. normal temporal usage Genitive Absolute Used as Latin uses the Ablative Absolute, i.e. when there is no grammatical link with the main clause. της εἰρηνης γενομενης οἱ πολιται ἐθαυμαζον = peace having occurred, the citizens were amazed. των αἰχμαλωτων ἀποθανοντων οἱ πολιται ἐδακρυσαν = the prisoners of war having been killed, the citizens wept. Concessive use with καιπερ Unlike in Latin where the words for although are followed by finite verbs, in Greek, καιπερ is followed by a participle. καιπερ της εἰρηνης γενομενης οἱ πολιται οὐκ ἐθαυμαζον = although peace had occurred, [ literally: although peace having occurred] the citizens were not amazed. καιπερ των αἰχμαλωτων ἀποθανοντων οἱ πολιται ὀυκ ἐδακρυσαν = although the prisoners of war had been killed, [ literally: although the prisoners of war having been killed] the citizens did not weep.
15 This construction does not have to be in the Genitive Absolute: οἱ πολιται καιπερ τους πολεμιους ἀποκτειναντες οὐκ ἐνικησαν = although the citizens had killed the enemy [literally: the citizens although having killed the enemy], they did not win. Article + Participle This is a very Greek usage. The article followed by the participle is to be translated those doing X etc. οἱ νικησαντες = those who have won οἱ ἀποθανοντες = those who have died οἱ τους πολεμιους βλαπτοντες ἀγαθοι εἰσιν = those who harm [ those harming] the enemy are good men. οὐ φιλω τους ἀπο των πολεμιων φυγοντας = I do not like those who have fled [ those having fled] from the enemy. Normal temporal usage τας παρθενους τας δακρυουσας ἐρωτω τινες εἰσιν = I ask the weeping girls [present] who they are. τον σιτον ἐδομενος την μητερα εἰδον = being about to eat the food [future], I saw my mother. τους παιδας εἰσελθοντας εἰδον = I saw the children-having-come-in [or: that they had come in ]. ἐλθων τους πολιτας εἰδες = having come in [ aorist], you saw the citizens.
16 Other verb parts to know: εἰμι = I am εἰμι εἰ ἐστι ἐσμεν ἐστε εἰσιν ἠν / ἠ ἠσθα ἠν ἠμεν ἠτε ἠσαν Participle: ὠν, οὐσα, ὀν, Infinitive: εἰναι Imperatives: ἰσθι, ἐστε εἰμι = I shall go εἰμι εἰ εἰσι ἰμεν ἰτε ἰασι διδωμι = I give ἐδωκα ἐδωκας ἐδωκε ἐδομεν ἐδοτε ἐδοσαν δωσω= I will give; διδοναι = to give; δουναι= to give (aorist infinitive)