Strabo and the New Testament A Greek Reader prepared by Rev. Dr. R. D. Anderson (last revised 10 October 2017)

Strabo and the New Testament A Greek Reader prepared by Rev. Dr. R. D. Anderson (last revised 10 October 2017)

Introduction Strabo (born not before 64 BC, died sometime after AD 24)1 was a Greek aristocrat from Amasia in Pontus (Northern Turkey), descended from a prominent family. He had a typically well-rounded education by prominent scholars who were also known for their work and attachment to Homer. Although his teachers were predominantly Aristotelian, Strabo reveals himself as a follower of Stoic philosophy. Nevertheless he holds Homer in high regard as the forerunner of science and philosophy. Homer is rarely to be criticised. Earlier in his life Strabo had written some historiographical works which are no longer extant, but which were used by Josephus. The Geography, his only work extant, was written late in life, probably between AD 18 and 24.2 The Greek text for the following excerpts is taken from Meineke s edition of 1852-53. The following commentaries have also been consulted: R. Baladié, Strabon: Géographie, Tome V (Livre viii) (Paris: Société d'édition Les Belles Lettres, 1978) A. de Jong, Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature (Leiden: Brill, 1997) commentary on Strabo in chapter 3. M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism: Vol. 1 From Herodotus to Plutarch (Jerusalem: The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1976) 1 2 See D. Dueck, Strabo of Amasia: A Greek Man of Letters in Augustan Rome (London 2000) 1-2. See Dueck, Op.cit. 145-50. 2

Contents Introduction...2 Description of Corinth (8,6,20-23)...4 The wealth of Corinth (8,6,20)...4 The early history of Corinth...5 The Cult of Aphrodite...5 Description of Corinth: The Acrocorinth (8,6,21)...6 The Summit of the Acrocorinth...7 View from the Acrocorinth...8 The Harbours of Corinth (8,6,22)...8 Description of the Isthmus...9 Crommyon...10 Tenea...10 The Fall of Corinth (8,6,23)...10 The Plundering of Corinth...11 The Refounding of Corinth...12 Conclusion...12 What is a barbarian? (14,2,28b)...13 Education in Tarsus (14,5,12-13)...14 The Magi (15,3,15)...16 Judea (16,2,34-37)...17 The Dead Sea (16,2,42)...20 Stoic Theology of Creation (17,1,36)...21 3

Description of Corinth (8,6,20-23) Corinth had been sacked and laid waste by the Romans in 146 BC. In 44 BC it was refounded as a Roman colony. Strabo visited Corinth in 44 BC and again in 29 BC. His starting point in the description of Corinth is Homer who described it in the famous catalogue of ships as ἀφνειός ( wealthy, Iliad, 2,570). Strabo closes section 8,6,19 with the following remark: καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀπὸ τοῦ Ἀκροκορίνθου κατωπτεύσαμεν τὸ κτίσμα ( And we have looked down on the foundation [of Corinth] from the Acrocorinth ). Strabo, incidentally, typically uses the authorial we. The Acrocorinth was a steep rocky mountain about 580 meters high just south-west of the city, which was dedicated to Aphrodite. Strabo s description is thus based on autopsy. It is interesting to note his (appropriate) use of the word κτίσμα in the sense of something that has been founded (e.g. a building or city). This word is used quite differently by Jews and the NT in the sense of creation. Strabo describes the harbours and the surrounding countryside, noting particularly the views he had from all sides while standing on top of the Acrocorinth. He does not, however, describe the city itself. Strabo 8,6,20-23 The wealth of Corinth Ὁ δὲ Κόρινθος ἀφνειὸς μὲν λέγεται διὰ τὸ ἐμπόριον, ἐπὶ τῷ Ἰσθμῷ κείμενος καὶ δυεῖν λιμένων [ὢν] κύριος, ὧν ὁ μὲν τῆς Ἀσίας ὁ δὲ τῆς Ἰταλίας ἐγγύς ἐστι... καὶ ῥᾳδίας ποιεῖ τὰς ἑκατέρωθεν ἀμοιβὰς τῶν φορτίων πρὸς ἀλλήλους τοῖς τοσοῦτον ἀφεστῶσιν. ἦν δ' ὥσπερ ὁ πορθμὸς οὐκ εὔπλους ὁ κατὰ τὴν Σικελίαν τὸ παλαιόν, οὕτω καὶ τὰ πελάγη καὶ μάλιστα τὸ ὑπὲρ Μαλεῶν διὰ τὰς ἀντιπνοίας ἀφ' οὗ καὶ παροιμιάζονται Μαλέας δὲ κάμψας ἐπιλάθου τῶν οἴκαδε. ἀγαπητὸν οὖν ἑκατέροις ἦν τοῖς τε ἐκ τῆς Ἰταλίας καὶ ἐκ τῆς Ἀσίας ἐμπόροις, ἀφεῖσι τὸν περὶ Μαλέας πλοῦν, κατάγεσθαι τὸν φόρτον αὐτόθι καὶ πεζῇ δὲ τῶν ἐκκομιζομένων ἐκ τῆς Πελοποννήσου καὶ τῶν εἰσαγομένων ἔπιπτε τὰ τέλη τοῖς τὰ κλεῖθρα ἔχουσι. ἀφνειός, -όν, rich / wealthy (poetic) ἰσθμός, -οῦ, ὁ, neck πορθμός, ὁ, strait / narrow sea Σικελία, ἡ, Sicily πέλᾰγος, -εος, τό, the (open) sea ὑπέρ + gen. we normally see this metaphorically in the sense on behalf of, but the literal use is above. With the genitive, generally in the sense of resting above, and with the accusative as above / beyond of motion. ἀντίπνοια, ἡ, conflicting wind παροιμιάζω, Mid. to make proverbial κάμπτω, I. to bend, curve + acc. II. to turn / guide around. This term is used of guiding a vehicle or ship around a bend (such as a point, or bay). αὐτόθῐ, Adv. = αὐτοῦ, on the spot κατάγω, (nautical) to bring down (a ship from the high seas) to land τέλος, -εος, τό, here in the sense of tax τοῖς τοσοῦτον ἀφεστῶσιν (sc. τόποις) The reference is to Asia and Italy which are so far apart. τὸ παλαιόν Note the classical use of the article with the adverbial form. ἀγαπητὸν (sc. Κόρινθον) 4

The early history of Corinth διέμεινε δὲ τοῦτο καὶ εἰς ὕστερον μέχρι παντός τοῖς δ' ὕστερον καὶ πλείω προσεγίνετο πλεονεκτήματα καὶ γὰρ ὁ Ἰσθμικὸς ἀγὼν ἐκεῖ συντελούμενος ὄχλους ἐπήγετο, καὶ οἱ Βακχιάδαι τυραννήσαντες, πλούσιοι καὶ πολλοὶ καὶ γένος λαμπροί, διακόσια ἔτη σχεδόν τι κατέσχον τὴν ἀρχὴν καὶ τὸ ἐμπόριον ἀδεῶς ἐκαρπώσαντο τούτους δὲ Κύψελος καταλύσας αὐτὸς ἐτυράννησε, καὶ μέχρι τριγονίας ὁ οἶκος αὐτοῦ συνέμεινε τοῦ δὲ περὶ τὸν οἶκον τοῦτον πλούτου μαρτύριον τὸ Ὀλυμπίασιν ἀνάθημα Κυψέλου, σφυρήλατος χρυσοῦς ἀνδριὰς εὐμεγέθης [Διός]. Δημάρατός τε, εἷς τῶν ἐν Κορίνθῳ δυναστευσάντων, φεύγων τὰς ἐκεῖ στάσεις τοσοῦτον ἠνέγκατο πλοῦτον οἴκοθεν εἰς τὴν Τυρρηνίαν ὥστε αὐτὸς μὲν ἦρξε τῆς δεξαμένης αὐτὸν πόλεως, ὁ δ' υἱὸς αὐτοῦ καὶ Ῥωμαίων κατέστη βασιλεύς. πλείω = πλείονα, note the hyperbaton πλεονεκτημα, ατος, τό, advantage, gain συντελέω, to bring to an end / complete; celebrate or hold (sacred rites) λαμπρός -η -ον, I. bright, II. (of persons) well-known, illustrious ἀδεῶς adv. without fear or scruple τρῐγονία, ἡ, the third generation συμμένω, (of treaties or agreements) hold, stand fast, continue σφῠρήλᾰτος -ον, (σφῦρα, ἐλαύνω) wrought with the hammer διακόσια ἔτη σχεδόν τι κατέσχον τὴν ἀρχὴν A 1st cent. Roman bronze & marble statue of Zeus Strabo s chronology is generally assumed to be incorrect. They (Hermitage, St. Petersburg). Such statues generally reigned from 748 657 BC. followed the form - shown here - of the most famous colossal statue of Zeus by Pheidias in Oolympia, Ῥωμαίων κατέστη βασιλεύς which although lost is described in detail by ancients. Note the hyperbaton. His son was known as Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, reputedly the fifth king of Rome, 616 to 579 BC. The Cult of Aphrodite τό τε τῆς Ἀφροδίτης ἱερὸν οὕτω πλούσιον ὑπῆρξεν ὥστε πλείους ἢ χιλίας ἱεροδούλους ἐκέκτητο ἑταίρας, ἃς ἀνετίθεσαν τῇ θεῷ καὶ ἄνδρες καὶ γυναῖκες. καὶ διὰ ταύτας οὖν πολυωχλεῖτο ἡ πόλις καὶ ἐπλουτίζετο οἱ γὰρ ναύκληροι ῥᾳδίως ἐξανηλίσκοντο, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ἡ παροιμία φησίν οὐ παντὸς ἀνδρὸς ἐς Κόρινθόν ἐσθ' ὁ πλοῦς. καὶ δὴ καὶ μνημονεύεταί τις ἑταίρα πρὸς τὴν ὀνειδίζουσαν, ὅτι οὐ φιλεργὸς εἴη οὐδ' ἐρίων ἅπτοιτο, εἰπεῖν ἐγὼ μέντοι ἡ τοιαύτη τρεῖς ἤδη καθεῖλον ἱστοὺς ἐν βραχεῖ χρόνῳ τούτῳ. ναύκληρος, ὁ captain ἐξανᾱλίσκω, spend entirely ἔριον, τό, wool ἱστός, ὁ, (ἵστημι) anything set upright: Ι. mast (of a ship), II. the beam (of a loom) or the web hanging on the beam of the loom πλείους ἢ χιλίας ἱεροδούλους ἐκέκτητο ἑταίρας Hyperbaton. Note the past tense. These sex-workers were not there in Strabo s time and even their presence in earlier times is doubted by modern scholars. πρὸς τὴν ὀνειδίζουσαν (sc. ἀνθρώπην) The reproach follows in indirect speech (note the optatives). τρεῖς ἤδη καθεῖλον ἱστοὺς Hyperbaton. The pun can be taken several different ways (e.g. to take down three masts ) and the sexual connotation is obvious. 5

Description of Corinth: The Acrocorinth 21 Τὴν δὲ τοποθεσίαν τῆς πόλεως, ἐξ ὧν Ἱερώνυμός τε εἴρηκε καὶ Εὔδοξος καὶ ἄλλοι καὶ αὐτοὶ δὲ εἴδομεν νεωστὶ ἀναληφθείσης ὑπὸ τῶν Ῥωμαίων, τοιάνδε εἶναι συμβαίνει. ὄρος ὑψηλὸν ὅσον τριῶν ἥμισυ σταδίων ἔχον τὴν κάθετον, τὴν δ' ἀνάβασιν καὶ τριάκοντα σταδίων, εἰς ὀξεῖαν τελευτᾷ κορυφήν καλεῖται δὲ Ἀκροκόρινθος, οὗ τὸ μὲν πρὸς ἄρκτον μέρος ἐστὶ τὸ μάλιστα ὄρθιον, ὑφ' ᾧ κεῖται ἡ πόλις ἐπὶ τραπεζώδους ἐπιπέδου χωρίου πρὸς αὐτῇ τῇ ῥίζῃ τοῦ Ἀκροκορίνθου. αὐτῆς μὲν οὖν τῆς πόλεως ὁ κύκλος καὶ τετταράκοντα σταδίων ὑπῆρχεν ἐτετείχιστο δ' ὅσον τῆς πόλεως γυμνὸν ἦν τοῦ ὄρους συμπεριείληπτο δὲ τῷ περιβόλῳ τούτῳ καὶ τὸ ὄρος αὐτὸ ὁ Ἀκροκόρινθος ᾗ δυνατὸν ἦν τειχισμὸν δέξασθαι, καὶ ἡμῖν ἀναβαίνουσιν ἦν δῆλα τὰ ἐρείπια τῆς σχοινίας ὥσθ' ἡ πᾶσα περίμετρος ἐγίνετο περὶ πέντε καὶ ὀγδοήκοντα σταδίων. ἀπὸ δὲ τῶν ἄλλων μερῶν ἧττον ὄρθιόν ἐστι τὸ ὄρος, ἀνατέταται μέντοι ἐνθένδε ἱκανῶς καὶ περίοπτόν ἐστιν. κάθετος -ον, (καθίημι) let down / perpendicular κορῠφή, ἡ, head / top ἄρκτος, ἡ, bear; in reference to the constellation Great bear, North τρᾰπεζώδης, -ες, = τραπεζοειδής (ἡ τράπεζα3), table-shaped ἐπίπεδος, -ον, on the ground, level / flat χωρίον, τό, place / spot / district ᾗ, where ἐρείπιον, τό, (ἐρείπω, to throw down ) fallen ruin, wreck σχοινία, ἡ, I. clump of rushes, II. part of a wall (only here) ἀνατείνω, trans. to lift x up; intrans. to reach up Ἱερώνυμός Hieronymus of Cardia was a Greek general and historian in the time of Alexander the Great. Εὔδοξος Eudoxus of Cnidus (ca. 390 ca. 337 BC) was a Greek astronomer, mathematician, scholar and student of Plato. καὶ αὐτοὶ δὲ = and even we ourselves ἀναληφθείσης Agreeing with the earlier τῆς πόλεως. Strabo was present in 44 BC, the year in which the city was restored. τὴν κάθετον (sc. γραμμήν, line ) τὴν δ' ἀνάβασιν (sc. ἔχον) 3 LSJ give trapezoid-shaped as the meaning for τραπεζοειδής, but this begs the question as to what a Greek might consider to be the typical shape of a table. The word means literally having the form of a table. The word τρά-πεζα literally refers to 4-footed thing, but was the regular word for a table, even when there were only 3 feet. Tables were generally made of wood. The Greeks tended to use them solely for eating and put them away afterwards (dismountable). Romans also used tables for placing ornaments on. More to the point, tables were both round and 4-sided, arguably more often round. So this begs the question as to what might be meant by a ground-plan having the form of a table! 6

The Summit of the Acrocorinth ἡ μὲν οὖν κορυφὴ ναΐδιον ἔχει Ἀφροδίτης, ὑπὸ δὲ τῇ κορυφῇ τὴν Πειρήνην εἶναι συμβαίνει κρήνην, ἔκρυσιν μὲν οὐκ ἔχουσαν μεστὴν δ' ἀεὶ διαυγοῦς καὶ ποτίμου ὕδατος. φασὶ δὲ καὶ ἐνθένδε καὶ ἐξ ἄλλων ὑπονόμων τινῶν φλεβίων συνθλίβεσθαι τὴν πρὸς τῇ ῥίζῃ τοῦ ὄρους κρήνην ἐκρέουσαν εἰς τὴν πόλιν ὥσθ' ἱκανῶς ἀπ' αὐτῆς ὑδρεύεσθαι. ἔστι δὲ καὶ φρεάτων εὐπορία κατὰ τὴν πόλιν, λέγουσι δὲ καὶ κατὰ τὸν Ἀκροκόρινθον οὐ μὴν ἡμεῖς γε εἴδομεν. τοῦ δ' οὖν Εὐριπίδου φήσαντος οὕτως The Acrocorinth seen from Apollos' temple in Corinth ἥκω περίκλυστον προλιποῦσ' Ἀκροκόρινθον, ἱερὸν ὄχθον, πόλιν Ἀφροδίτας, τὸ περίκλυστον ἤτοι κατὰ βάθους δεκτέον, ἐπεὶ καὶ * φρέατα καὶ ὑπόνομοι λιβάδες διήκουσι δι' αὐτοῦ, ἢ τὸ παλαιὸν ὑποληπτέον τὴν Πειρήνην ἐπιπολάζειν καὶ κατάρρυτον ποιεῖν τὸ ὄρος. ἐνταῦθα δέ φασι πίνοντα τὸν Πήγασον ἁλῶναι ὑπὸ Βελλεροφόντου, πτηνὸν ἵππον ἐκ τοῦ τραχήλου τοῦ Μεδούσης ἀναπαλέντα κατὰ τὴν γοργοτομίαν τὸν δ' αὐτόν φασι καὶ τὴν Ἵππου κρήνην ἀναβαλεῖν ἐν τῷ Ἑλικῶνι πλήξαντα τῷ ὄνυχι τὴν ὑποῦσαν πέτραν. ὑπὸ δὲ τῇ Πειρήνῃ τὸ Σισύφειόν ἐστιν, ἱεροῦ τινος ἢ βασιλείου λευκῶν λίθων πεποιημένου διασῶζον ἐρείπια οὐκ ὀλίγα. ναΐδιον [ιδ], τό, dim. of ναός ὑπονόμος, -ον, underground συνθλίβω [ῑ], to press together / compress εὐπορία, ἡ, plenty / abundance περίκλυστος, η, ον, washed all round by the sea προλείπω, forsake, abandon ὄχθος, ὁ, mound, hill κατά + gen. here in the sense in respect of λιβάς, -άδος, ἡ, anything that drips ἐπιπολάζω, to be at the top / come to the surface ἀναπάλλω, pass. to spring up Γοργοτομία, ἡ, (τέμνω) cutting off the Gorgon s head (coinage) ἀναβάλλω, to throw up; here it must mean cause to spring up ὄνυξ, -ῠχος, ὁ, nail, claw, hoof φασὶ δὲ καὶ ἐνθένδε κτλ. This is actually not true and there is no subterranean connection between the spring Peirene at the foot of the Acrocorinth and the spring Peirene just outside the city itself (on the way to Lechaeum). This connection was only made in Roman times. τὸ περίκλυστον As Baladié aptly states in his notes, neither interpretation of Strabo would have been the intention of Euripides, who refers to the fact that Corinth is bounded by seas on both sides of the city. The quotation is a fragment from a lost play. ἐν τῷ Ἑλικῶνι Helicon is a mountain in Boeotia where the muses were supposed to live. τὸ Σισύφειόν Sisyphus was the mythical founder and king of Corinth. Baladié shows from ancient sources that it was still standing in 303 BC, but that the ruins were already gone by the second century AD. There is now no trace of the palace left. Peirene fountain just outside Corinth: An important source of water for a city without plumbing! 7

View from the Acrocorinth ἀπὸ δὲ τῆς κορυφῆς πρὸς ἄρκτον μὲν ἀφορᾶται ὅ τε Παρνασσὸς καὶ ὁ Ἑλικών, ὄρη ὑψηλὰ καὶ νιφόβολα, καὶ ὁ Κρισαῖος κόλπος ὑποπεπτωκὼς ἀμφοτέροις, περιεχόμενος ὑπὸ τῆς Φωκίδος καὶ τῆς Βοιωτίας καὶ τῆς Μεγαρίδος καὶ τῆς ἀντιπόρθμου τῇ Φωκίδι Κορινθίας καὶ Σικυωνίας πρὸς ἑσπέραν δὲ <ἡ μεταξὺ Κορίνθου καὶ τῆς Ἀσωπίας χώρα καλλίστη τῶν ἐντος Ἰσθμοῦ, πρὸς νότον τε ἡ Τενεατὶς τῆς Κορινθίας οὖσα γῆ καὶ αἱ Κλεωναὶ καί τινα [ὄ]ρη τῆς Ἀρκ[αδ]ίας καὶ τῆς Φλιασίας, πρὸς ἕω{ι} δὲ ὅ τε Ἰσθμὸς καὶ ἡ ἑκατέρωθεν οὖσα τοῦ Ἰσθμοῦ καὶ Π[ελοποννήσου] παραλία καὶ τὸ μεταξὺ χῶρα μέχρι τῆς Μεγαρικῆς διατεινούσης ἀπὸ θαλάτ[της εἰς θάλατταν]>.4 ὑπέρκειται δὲ τούτων ἁπάντων τὰ καλούμενα Ὄνεια ὄρη διατείνοντα μέχρι Βοιωτίας καὶ Κιθαιρῶνος ἀπὸ τῶν Σκειρωνίδων πετρῶν, ἀπὸ τῆς παρὰ ταύτας ὁδοῦ πρὸς τὴν Ἀττικήν. νῐφοβολος, -ον, snowclad περιέχω, to embrace / surround ἕως, ἡ, dawn; East The Harbours of Corinth 22 Ἀρχὴ δὲ τῆς παραλίας ἑκατέρας τῆς μὲν τὸ Λέχαιον τῆς δὲ Κεγχρεαὶ κώμη καὶ λιμὴν ἀπέχων τῆς πόλεως ὅσον ἑβδομήκοντα σταδίους τούτῳ μὲν οὖν χρῶνται πρὸς τοὺς ἐκ τῆς Ἀσίας πρὸς δὲ τοὺς ἐκ τῆς Ἰταλίας τῷ Λεχαίῳ. τὸ δὲ Λέχαιον ὑποπέπτωκε τῇ πόλει κατοικίαν ἔχον οὐ πολλήν σκέλη δὲ καθείλκυσται σταδίων περὶ δώδεκα ἑκατέρωθεν τῆς ὁδοῦ τῆς ἐπὶ τὸ Λέχαιον. λῐμήν, ένος, ὁ, harbour καθέλκω (Pf.pass. εἵλκυσμαι), to drag down δίολκος, ὁ, passageway for the transport of cargo-boats Κεγχρεαὶ κώμη καὶ λιμὴν Cenchreae seems to have hosted a separate church. It is also the place where Paul had his hair cut in accordance with the Nazarite vow he took (Rom. 16:1; Acts 18:18). σκέλη δὲ καθείλκυσται The two walls on either side of a road connecting a city to its harbour were known as the legs. 4 The inserted text was recovered from a palimpsest and is not found in Meineke s edition nor translated in the LOEB edition. See Paul W. Wallace, Strabo on Acrocorinth in Hesperia 38.4, (1969) pp.495-99. 8

Description of the Isthmus ἐντεῦθεν δὲ παρεκτείνουσα ἡ ᾐὼν μέχρι Παγῶν τῆς Μεγαρίδος κλύζεται μὲν ὑπὸ τοῦ Κορινθιακοῦ κόλπου, κοίλη δ' ἐστὶ καὶ ποιεῖ τὸν δίολκον πρὸς τὴν ἑτέραν ᾐόνα τὴν κατὰ Σχοινοῦντα πλησίον ὄντα τῶν Κεγχρεῶν. ἐν δὲ τῷ μεταξὺ τοῦ Λεχαίου καὶ Παγῶν τὸ τῆς Ἀκραίας μαντεῖον Ἥρας ὑπῆρχε τὸ παλαιόν, καὶ αἱ Ὀλμιαὶ τὸ ποιοῦν ἀκρωτήριον τὸν κόλπον ἐν ᾧ ἥ τε Οἰνόη καὶ Παγαί, τὸ μὲν τῶν Μεγαρέων φρούριον ἡ δὲ Οἰνόη τῶν Κορινθίων. ἀπὸ [δὲ] τῶν Κεγχρεῶν ὁ Σχοινοῦς, καθ' ὃν τὸ στενὸν τοῦ διόλκου ἔπειθ' ἡ Κρομμυωνία. πρόκειται δὲ τῆς ᾐόνος ταύτης ὅ τε Σαρωνικὸς κόλπος καὶ ὁ Ἐλευσινιακός, τρόπον τινὰ ὁ αὐτὸς ὤν, συνεχὴς τῷ Ἑρμιονικῷ. ἐπὶ δὲ τῷ Ἰσθμῷ καὶ τὸ τοῦ Ἰσθμίου Ποσειδῶνος ἱερὸν ἄλσει πιτυώδει συνηρεφές, ὅπου τὸν ἀγῶνα τῶν Ἰσθμίων Κορίνθιοι συνετέλουν. ἠϊών, Trag. ᾐών -όνος, ἡ, shore, beach μαντεῖον, τό, oracle, i.e., I. oracular response, mostly in pl., II. seat of an oracle ἀκραῖος, α, ον, extreme, topmost (one of the epithets of Hera, goddess of women and marriage) φρούριον, τό, hill-fort / garrison συνηρεφ-ής, ές, (ἐρέφω, to cover over ) thickly shaded or covered The 'diolkos' from the Western side τὸ ποιοῦν ἀκρωτήριον τὸν κόλπον This phrase is in apposition to αἱ Ὀλμιαί. Note that τὸ ποιοῦν ἀκρωτήριον cannot be hyperbaton (a definite article may not be isolated in hyperbaton), therefore the participle ποιοῦν is adjectival and governs τὸν κόλπον as its object. τὸ μὲν τῶν Μεγαρέων φρούριον In apposition to Παγαί. τῶν Κορινθίων (sc. φρούριον) τὸ στενὸν (sc. μέρος) τῷ Ἑρμιονικῷ (sc. κόλπῳ) τὸ τοῦ Ἰσθμίου Ποσειδῶνος ἱερὸν... ὅπου τὸν ἀγῶνα τῶν Ἰσθμίων Κορίνθιοι συνετέλουν. The nearby sanctuary of Isthmia was from of old a holy place for all Greeks. Once every two years, probably in April, games were organised in honour of Poseidon which included contests in music, rhetoric and painting. These games were only eclipsed by those at Olympia, although the games at Isthmia gained increasing popularity due to the large festivities associated with them. In the days of Paul these bi-annual games were immensely popular and attracted large crowds. Scholars are, however, not sure where these games were held in the time of Paul. Around 144 BC, after the destruction of Corinth by the Romans, the games became the responsibility of the nearby city of Sicyon, where they were probably also held. During the reign of the emperor Claudius ( AD 41-54) a considerable building programme for the derelict sanctuary in Isthmia was begun. The games were possibly only at this time returned to Isthmia, once again under the direction of the city of Corinth.5 Others, however, believe that during the period before the restitution and enlargement of Isthmia, the games were held in the city of Corinth itself (Gebhard, who dates the return of the games to Isthmia at around AD 50-60).6 We cannot, therefore, be sure whether Paul would have been personally confronted with these games during his first stay in Corinth from about the end of AD 49 to the middle of 51. In any case, the importance of the games cannot have eluded Paul and the members of the church at Corinth. 5 6 S. B. Fee; T. E. Gregory, The Ohio State University Excavations at Isthmia Web Site (Third ed. 2000) Available: http://isthmia.ohio-state.edu/. E. R. Gebhard, The Isthmian Games and the Sanctuary of Poseidon in the Early Empire in: T. E. Gregory (ed.), The Corinthia in the Roman Period, Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 8) (1993) 78-94. 9

Crommyon ἡ δὲ Κρομμυὼν ἔστι κώμη τῆς Κορινθίας, πρότερον δὲ τῆς Μεγαρίδος, ἐν ᾗ μυθεύουσι τὰ περὶ τὴν Κρομμυωνίαν ὗν, ἣν μητέρα τοῦ Καλυδωνίου κάπρου φασί καὶ τῶν Θησέως ἄθλων ἕνα τοῦτον παραδιδόασι τὴν τῆς ὑὸς ταύτης ἐξαίρεσιν. κάπρος [ᾰ], ὁ, boar, esp. wild boar Tenea καὶ ἡ Τενέα δ' ἐστὶ κώμη τῆς Κορινθίας, ἐν ᾗ τοῦ Τενεάτου Ἀπόλλωνος ἱερόν λέγεται δὲ καὶ Ἀρχίᾳ τῷ στείλαντι τὴν εἰς Συρακούσας ἀποικίαν τοὺς πλείστους Theseus fighting the Crommyonian sow (ca. 5th cent. BC) τῶν ἐποίκων ἐντεῦθεν συνεπακολουθῆσαι, καὶ μετὰ ταῦτα εὐθηνεῖν μάλιστα τῶν ἄλλων τὴν κατοικίαν ταύτην, τὰ δ' ὕστατα καὶ καθ' αὑτοὺς πολιτεύεσθαι, προσθέσθαι τε τοῖς Ῥωμαίοις ἀποστάντας Κορινθίων καὶ κατασκαφείσης τῆς πόλεως συμμεῖναι. φέρεται δὲ καὶ χρησμὸς ὁ δοθείς τινι τῶν ἐκ τῆς Ἀσίας ἐρωτῶντι εἰ λῷον εἴη μετοικεῖν εἰς Κόρινθον εὐδαίμων ὁ Κόρινθος, ἐγὼ δ' εἴην Τενεάτης. ὅπερ κατ' ἄγνοιάν τινες παρατρέπουσιν ἐγὼ δ' εἴην Τεγεάτης. λέγεται δ' ἐνταῦθα ἐκθρέψαι Πόλυβος τὸν Οἰδίπουν. δοκεῖ δὲ καὶ συγγένειά τις εἶναι Τενεδίοις πρὸς τούτους ἀπὸ Τέννου τοῦ Κύκνου, καθάπερ εἴρηκεν Ἀριστοτέλης καὶ ἡ τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος δὲ τιμὴ παρ' ἀμφοτέροις ὁμοία οὖσα δίδωσιν οὐ μικρὰ σημεῖα. εὐθηνέω, to thrive, flourish λῴων, λῷον, more desirable, more agreeable, better Ἀρχίᾳ A Corinthian who left to found Syracuse in 733 BC. μάλιστα τῶν ἄλλων μάλιστα is sometimes used where we should have expected μᾶλλον. ἀπὸ Τέννου τοῦ Κύκνου, εἴρηκεν Ἀριστοτέλης Tennus, son of Kyknus was the divinised founder of Tenedos. The passage referred to is not to be found in the extant corpus of Aristotle. καὶ ἡ τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος δὲ τιμὴ παρ' ἀμφοτέροις ὁμοία οὖσα Greek temple rituals (unlike Roman temple rituals) varied considerably from place to place and temple to temple. For this reason, the similarity between the two places is to Strabo a strong indication that the two towns are directly related. The Fall of Corinth 23 Κορίνθιοι δ' ὑπὸ Φιλίππῳ ὄντες ἐκείνῳ τε συνεφιλονείκησαν καὶ ἰδίᾳ πρὸς Ῥωμαίους ὑπεροπτικῶς εἶχον, ὥστε τινὲς καὶ τῶν πρέσβεων παριόντων τὴν οἰκίαν αὐτῶν ἐθάρρησαν καταντλῆσαι βόρβορον. ἀντὶ τούτων μὲν οὖν καὶ ἄλλων ὧν ἐξήμαρτον ἔτισαν δίκας αὐτίκα πεμφθείσης γὰρ ἀξιολόγου στρατιᾶς, αὐτή τε κατέσκαπτο ὑπὸ Λευκίου Μομμίου καὶ τἆλλα μέχρι Μακεδονίας ὑπὸ Ῥωμαίοις ἐγένετο, ἐν ἄλλοις ἄλλων πεμπομένων στρατηγῶν τὴν δὲ χώραν ἔσχον Σικυώνιοι τὴν πλείστην τῆς Κορινθίας. συμφιλονικέω, to take part with, side with, τινι καταντλέω, to pour τινα (water or liquid) down over τινος βόρβορος, ὁ, mud, filth ἀξιόλογος, ον, worthy of mention, remarkable αὐτή τε κατέσκαπτο (sc. ἡ πόλις) This took place in 146 BC. ἐν ἄλλοις (sc. τόποις) ἄλλων πεμπομένων στρατηγῶν The indefinite pronoun ἄλλος is often followed with another of its cases or adverbial forms in an abbreviated clause, see Smyth 1274. The phrase is a genitive absolute. 10

The Plundering of Corinth Πολύβιος δὲ τὰ συμβάντα περὶ τὴν ἅλωσιν ἐν οἴκτου μέρει λέγων προστίθησι καὶ τὴν στρατιωτικὴν ὀλιγωρίαν τὴν περὶ τὰ τῶν τεχνῶν ἔργα καὶ τὰ ἀναθήματα. φησὶ γὰρ ἰδεῖν παρὼν ἐρριμμένους πίνακας ἐπ' ἐδάφους, πεττεύοντας δὲ τοὺς στρατιώτας ἐπὶ τούτων. ὀνομάζει δ' αὐτῶν Ἀριστείδου γραφὴν τοῦ Διονύσου, ἐφ' οὗ τινες εἰρῆσθαί φασι τὸ οὐδὲν πρὸς τὸν Διόνυσον, καὶ τὸν Ἡρακλέα τὸν καταπονούμενον τῷ τῆς Δηιανείρας χιτῶνι. τοῦτον μὲν οὖν οὐχ ἑωράκαμεν ἡμεῖς, τὸν δὲ Διόνυσον ἀνακείμενον ἐν τῷ Δημητρείῳ τῷ ἐν Ῥώμῃ κάλλιστον ἔργον ἑωρῶμεν ἐμπρησθέντος δὲ τοῦ νεὼ συνηφανίσθη καὶ ἡ γραφὴ νεωστί. σχεδὸν δέ τι καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἀναθημάτων τῶν ἐν Ῥώμῃ τὰ πλεῖστα καὶ ἄριστα ἐντεῦθεν ἀφῖχθαι τινὰ δὲ καὶ αἱ κύκλῳ τῆς Ῥώμης πόλεις ἔσχον. μεγαλόφρων γὰρ ὢν μᾶλλον ἢ φιλότεχνος ὁ Μόμμιος, ὥς φασι, μετεδίδου ῥᾳδίως τοῖς δεηθεῖσι. Λεύκολλος δὲ κατασκευάσας τὸ τῆς Εὐτυχίας ἱερὸν καὶ στοάν τινα χρῆσιν ᾐτήσατο ὧν εἶχεν ἀνδριάντων ὁ Μόμμιος, ὡς κοσμήσων τὸ ἱερὸν μέχρι ἀναδείξεως, εἶτ' ἀποδώσων οὐκ ἀπέδωκε δέ, ἀλλ' ἀνέθηκε κελεύσας αἴρειν εἰ βούλεται πράως δ' ἤνεγκεν ἐκεῖνος οὐ φροντίσας οὐδέν, ὥστ' ηὐδοκίμει τοῦ ἀναθέντος μᾶλλον. οἶκτος, ὁ, pity, compassion ὀλιγωρία, ἡ, an esteeming lightly, contempt τέχνη, ἡ, here = τὸ τέχνημα, work of art ἔδαφος, -εος, τό, bottom, foundation, base; ground-floor, pavement πεσσεύω, to play at draughts ἐμπίμπρημι, to kindle / set on fire ἀφῖχθαι perf. pass. infin. of ἀφικνέομαι, to arrive ἀνάδειξις, εως, ἡ, showing forth: esp. public proclamation or appointment; here dedication εὐδοκιμέω, to be highly esteemed Heracles accepts the tunic from Deianeira Πολύβιος Polybius (ca. 200 ca. 118 BC) is one of the major respected sources for Strabo. A Greek historian of note, his Histories covering the period of 264 146 BC describe in detail the rise of the Roman Republic to their status of dominance in the ancient Mediterranean world and include his eyewitness account of the Sack of Carthage in 146 BC. The portion referred to here by Strabo is unfortunately not extant. Ἀριστείδου γραφὴν There were two famous (related) painters named Aristeides of Thebes in 4 th century Greece. Which of the two painted the Dionysius and the Heracles is unknown. πρὸς τὸν Διόνυσον The preposition is here used in the sense of compared with. τὸν Ἡρακλέα τὸν καταπονούμενον τῷ τῆς Δηιανείρας χιτῶνι That is to say the painting of Heracles.... Deianeira was rescued by Heracles from a wild centaur who dying persuaded her to take some of his blood as a potion to ensure that Heracles would not be unfaithful. Deianeira took it, later using it by smearing it on a tunic she gave him. When he put it on the toxic blood burned Heracles terribly, and eventually, he threw himself into a funeral pyre. In despair, Deianeira committed suicide. ἐν τῷ Δημητρείῳ τῷ ἐν Ῥώμῃ He surely means the temple of the Roman god Ceres (translated here as Demeter). According to Baladié (238) the temple was actually dedicated to a trinity of gods, Ceres, Liber, and Libera. τὸ τῆς Εὐτυχίας ἱερὸν That is, a temple to Felicitas. ὧν εἶχεν ἀνδριάντων ὧν stands for τούτων ἅ (the ἅ is the implied object of εἶχεν). Note that the relative pronoun is often attracted to the case of the antecedent (esp. when this is genitive). In this case, the antecedent is not specifically expressed (being τούτων the genitive depends on χρῆσιν), but attraction to an unexpressed demonstrative pronoun is more common. The implied τούτων goes with ἀνδριάντων (a typical hyperbaton). κελεύσας (sc. τὸν Μόμμιον) 11

The Refounding of Corinth πολὺν δὲ χρόνον ἐρήμη μείνασα ἡ Κόρινθος ἀνελήφθη πάλιν ὑπὸ Καίσαρος τοῦ θεοῦ διὰ τὴν εὐφυΐαν, ἐποίκους πέμψαντος τοῦ ἀπελευθερικοῦ γένους πλείστους οἳ τὰ ἐρείπια κινοῦντες καὶ τοὺς τάφους συνανασκάπτοντες εὕρισκον ὀστρακίνων τορευμάτων πλήθη, πολλὰ δὲ καὶ χαλκώματα θαυμάζοντες δὲ τὴν κατασκευὴν οὐδένα τάφον ἀσκευώρητον εἴασαν, ὥστε εὐπορήσαντες τῶν τοιούτων καὶ διατιθέμενοι πολλοῦ νεκροκορινθίων ἐπλήρωσαν τὴν Ῥώμην οὕτω γὰρ ἐκάλουν τὰ ἐκ τῶν τάφων ληφθέντα, καὶ μάλιστα τὰ ὀστράκινα. κατ' ἀρχὰς μὲν οὖν ἐτιμήθη σφόδρα ὁμοίως τοῖς χαλκώμασι τοῖς κορινθιουργέσιν, εἶτ' ἐπαύσαντο τῆς σπουδῆς, ἐκλιπόντων τῶν ὀστράκων καὶ οὐδὲ κατωρθωμένων τῶν πλείστων. εὐφυΐα, ἡ, natural goodness τόρευμα, ατος, τό, embossed work, work in relief εὐπορέω, to prosper, thrive; have plenty of, abound in + gen. κατορθόω, to set upright; to accomplish successfully διατιθέμενοι πολλοῦ (sc. ταῦτα) The direct object is assumed from τῶν τοιούτων. The adverb πολλοῦ can probably best be construed as a genitive of price: disposing of them at a high price. Conclusion ἡ μὲν δὴ πόλις ἡ τῶν Κορινθίων μεγάλη τε καὶ πλουσία διὰ παντὸς ὑπῆρξεν, ἀνδρῶν τε ηὐπόρησεν ἀγαθῶν εἴς τε τὰ πολιτικὰ καὶ εἰς τὰς τέχνας τὰς δημιουργικάς μάλιστα γὰρ καὶ ἐνταῦθα καὶ ἐν Σικυῶνι ηὐξήθη γραφική τε καὶ πλαστικὴ καὶ πᾶσα ἡ τοιαύτη δημιουργία. χώραν δ' ἔσχεν οὐκ εὔγεων σφόδρα, ἀλλὰ σκολιάν τε καὶ τραχεῖαν, ἀφ' οὗ πάντες ὀφρυόεντα Κόρινθον εἰρήκασι καὶ παροιμιάζονται Κόρινθος ὀφρυᾷ τε καὶ κοιλαίνεται. εὔγεως, ων, = εὔγειος, ον, (γῆ) of or with good soil, ὀφρυόεις, εσσα, εν, on the brow or edge of a steep rock (taken from Homer s Iliad 22,411 of the Acrocorinth) ὀφρυάω, to have ridges or hills κοιλαίνω, to hollow / scoop out 12

What is a barbarian? (14,2,28b) Strabo explains for us the meaning and background of the term barbarian. This explanation occurs in the midst of a larger digression on the question of what Homer meant when he called the Carians βαρβαρόφωνοι (Iliad 2,867).7 Rom. 1:14 Ἕλλησίν τε καὶ βαρβάροις, σοφοῖς τε καὶ ἀνοήτοις ὀφειλέτης εἰμί Strabo 14,2,28b οἶμαι δὲ τὸ βάρβαρον κατ' ἀρχὰς ἐκπεφωνῆσθαι οὕτως κατ' ὀνοματοποιίαν ἐπὶ τῶν δυσεκφόρως καὶ σκληρῶς καὶ τραχέως λαλούντων, ὡς τὸ βατταρίζειν καὶ τραυλίζειν καὶ ψελλίζειν. εὐφυέστατοι γάρ ἐσμεν τὰς φωνὰς ταῖς ὁμοίαις φωναῖς κατονομάζειν διὰ τὸ ὁμογενές ᾗ δὴ καὶ πλεονάζουσιν ἐνταῦθα αἱ ὀνοματοποιίαι, οἷον τὸ κελαρύζειν καὶ κλαγγὴ δὲ καὶ ψόφος καὶ βοὴ καὶ κρότος, ὧν τὰ πλεῖστα ἤδη καὶ κυρίως ἐκφέρεται πάντων δὴ τῶν παχυστομούντων οὕτως βαρβάρων λεγομένων, ἐφάνη τὰ τῶν ἀλλοεθνῶν στόματα τοιαῦτα, λέγω δὲ τὰ τῶν μὴ Ἑλλήνων. ἐκείνους οὖν ἰδίως ἐκάλεσαν βαρβάρους, ἐν ἀρχαῖς μὲν κατὰ τὸ λοίδορον, ὡς ἂν παχυστόμους ἢ τραχυστόμους, εἶτα κατεχρησάμεθα ὡς ἐθνικῷ κοινῷ ὀνόματι ἀντιδιαιροῦντες πρὸς τοὺς Ἕλληνας. καὶ γὰρ δὴ τῇ πολλῇ συνηθείᾳ καὶ ἐπιπλοκῇ τῶν βαρβάρων οὐκέτι ἐφαίνετο κατὰ παχυστομίαν καὶ ἀφυΐαν τινὰ τῶν φωνητηρίων ὀργάνων τοῦτο συμβαῖνον, ἀλλὰ κατὰ τὰς τῶν διαλέκτων ἰδιότητας. ἄλλη δέ τις ἐν τῇ ἡμετέρᾳ διαλέκτῳ ἀνεφάνη κακοστομία καὶ οἷον βαρβαροστομία, εἴ τις ἑλληνίζων μὴ κατορθοίη, ἀλλ' οὕτω λέγοι τὰ ὀνόματα ὡς οἱ βάρβαροι οἱ εἰσαγόμενοι εἰς τὸν ἑλληνισμὸν οὐκ ἰσχύοντες ἀρτιστομεῖν, ὡς οὐδ' ἡμεῖς ἐν ταῖς ἐκείνων διαλέκτοις. οἶμαι = οἴομαι τὸ βάρβαρον (sc. ὄνομα) δῦσεκφορος, -ον, hard to pronounce or utter βατταρίζω, to stammer τραυλίζω, to mispronounce a letter / lisp (e.g. pronouncing r as l ) ψελλίζω, to falter in speech, speak inarticulately ᾗ, dat. sg. fem. relative pronoun used adverbially, in which way (cf. πῇ in which way?, πῄ enclitic in some way ) κελαρύζω, to babble / murmur (of running water) κλαγγή, ἡ, any sharp sound κρότος, ὁ, rattling noise πᾰχύστομος, -ον, speaking with a broad accent, hence -στομέω, -στομία συνήθεια, ἡ, habitual intercourse / acquaintance ἀφῠΐα, ἡ, lack of natural faculty ἄρτι [ῐ], Adv. just, exactly ἀρτιστομέω, coinage of Strabo 7 For a broader discussion of Strabo s views on Greeks vs barbarians see E. Almagor, Who is a barbarian? The barbarians in the ethnological and cultural taxonomies of Strabo in Strabo s Cultural Geography: The Making of a Kolossourgia, ed. D. Dueck et al. (Cambridge: University Press, 2005) 42-55. 13

Education in Tarsus (14,5,12-13) A number of Pauline commentators have made much of the fact that Paul grew up in Tarsus as a citizen (therefore propertied) and may, therefore, have had access to the kind of schooling described by Strabo in that city. While I personally would have grave doubts that a boy raised as a strict Pharisee would have been sent to such a school, which was generally reserved for the significant upper classes, it is worthwhile to be cognisant of the evidence which Strabo provides. We begin with Paul s own account of his upbringing as recorded by Luke. Acts 21:37 22:3 37 Μέλλων τε εἰσάγεσθαι εἰς τὴν παρεμβολὴν ὁ Παῦλος λέγει τῷ χιλιάρχῳ εἰ ἔξεστίν μοι εἰπεῖν τι πρὸς σέ; ὁ δὲ ἔφη Ἑλληνιστὶ γινώσκεις; 38 οὐκ ἄρα σὺ εἶ ὁ Αἰγύπτιος ὁ πρὸ τούτων τῶν ἡμερῶν ἀναστατώσας καὶ ἐξαγαγὼν εἰς τὴν ἔρημον τοὺς τετρακισχιλίους ἄνδρας τῶν σικαρίων; 39 εἶπεν δὲ ὁ Παῦλος ἐγὼ ἄνθρωπος μέν εἰμι Ἰουδαῖος, Ταρσεὺς τῆς Κιλικίας, οὐκ ἀσήμου πόλεως πολίτης δέομαι δέ σου, ἐπίτρεψόν μοι λαλῆσαι πρὸς τὸν λαόν. 40 ἐπιτρέψαντος δὲ αὐτοῦ ὁ Παῦλος ἑστὼς ἐπὶ τῶν ἀναβαθμῶν κατέσεισεν τῇ χειρὶ τῷ λαῷ. πολλῆς δὲ σιγῆς γενομένης προσεφώνησεν τῇ Ἑβραΐδι διαλέκτῳ λέγων 22:1 Ἄνδρες ἀδελφοὶ καὶ πατέρες, ἀκούσατέ μου τῆς πρὸς ὑμᾶς νυνὶ ἀπολογίας. 2 ἀκούσαντες δὲ ὅτι τῇ Ἑβραΐδι διαλέκτῳ προσεφώνει αὐτοῖς, μᾶλλον παρέσχον ἡσυχίαν. καὶ φησίν 3 ἐγώ εἰμι ἀνὴρ Ἰουδαῖος, γεγεννημένος ἐν Ταρσῷ τῆς Κιλικίας, ἀνατεθραμμένος δὲ ἐν τῇ πόλει ταύτῃ, παρὰ τοὺς πόδας Γαμαλιὴλ πεπαιδευμένος κατὰ ἀκρίβειαν τοῦ πατρῴου νόμου, ζηλωτὴς ὑπάρχων τοῦ θεοῦ καθὼς πάντες ὑμεῖς ἐστε σήμερον 21:37 τῷ χιλιάρχῳ That is, the tribunus militum, who was in charge of a cohors auxiliaris with a paper strength of 1,000 (760 infantry and 240 cavalry). According to 23:26 his name was Claudius Lysias. εἰ ἔξεστίν κτλ. This use of εἰ which is normally left untranslated is a Hebraism. Hebrew often has an א םם lacking it s apodosis, in this case something like Tell me if... v.38 ἀναστατώσας ἀναστατόω is a late Greek denominative derived from the adjective ἀνάστατος, which itself is derived from ἀνίσταμαι (making ἀναστατόω a late equivalent to the middle of ἀνίστημι). This verb form is first found in Jewish writings. τοὺς τετρακισχιλίους ἄνδρας Josephus mentions 30,000 men. F. F. Bruce comments: Luke's moderate figure of 4,000 followers is more likely than Josephus's 30,000 (BJ 2.261 ); indeed, it is supported by Josephus's own figures for those killed and taken captive. It has been pointed out that if, at some point in the transmission of Josephus's text, the numeral was expressed by a letter instead of being spelled out, an original 4,000 would have been indicated by,δ)., which could have been misread as, Λ (30,000). 8 τῶν σικαρίων Latin: sicarius, assassin / murderer. v.39 ἄσημος -ον, without mark, indistinct ἐγὼ ἄνθρωπος This is a typical Semitic redundancy. v.40 τῇ Ἑβραΐδι διαλέκτῳ This almost certainly refers to Aramaic. 22:3 ἐν τῇ πόλει ταύτῃ The question is whether Paul is referring to Tarsus or Jerusalem? 8 The Acts of the Apostles: The Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary, 3rd rev. and enlarged ed. (Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans, 1990). 14

Strabo 14,5,12-13 12 Ἡ δὲ Ταρσὸς κεῖται μὲν ἐν πεδίῳ κτίσμα δ' ἐστὶ τῶν μετὰ Τριπτολέμου πλανηθέντων Ἀργείων κατὰ ζήτησιν Ἰοῦς διαρρεῖ δ' αὐτὴν μέσην ὁ Κύδνος παρ' αὐτὸ τὸ γυμνάσιον τῶν νέων ἅτε δὲ τῆς πηγῆς οὐ πολὺ ἄπωθεν οὔσης, καὶ τοῦ ῥείθρου διὰ φάραγγος βαθείας ἰόντος, εἶτ' εὐθὺς εἰς τὴν πόλιν ἐκπίπτοντος, ψυχρόν τε καὶ τραχὺ τὸ ῥεῦμά ἐστιν, ὅθεν καὶ τοῖς παχυνευροῦσι * ῥοϊζομένοις καὶ κτήνεσι καὶ ἀνθρώποις ἐπικουρεῖ. πᾰχῠνευρέω, have swollen sinews (coinage) ῥοΐζω, to give to drink ἐπικουρέω, to render aid to τινι τῶν μετὰ Τριπτολέμου πλανηθέντων Ἀργείων κατὰ ζήτησιν Ἰοῦς I am not aware of the connection between the mythology of Triptolemus and Io (Ἰώ [ῑ], gen. Ἰοῦς, ἡ). ῥοϊζομένοις This reading is considered to be corrupt. The phrase must mean something like whence the stream renders aid to beasts and men who have swollen sinews. 13 Τοσαύτη δὲ τοῖς ἐνθάδε ἀνθρώποις σπουδὴ πρός τε φιλοσοφίαν καὶ τὴν ἄλλην παιδείαν ἐγκύκλιον ἅπασαν γέγονεν ὥσθ' ὑπερβέβληνται καὶ Ἀθήνας καὶ Ἀλεξάνδρειαν καὶ εἴ τινα ἄλλον τόπον δυνατὸν εἰπεῖν, ἐν ᾧ σχολαὶ καὶ διατριβαὶ φιλοσόφων γεγόνασι. διαφέρει δὲ τοσοῦτον ὅτι ἐνταῦθα μὲν οἱ φιλομαθοῦντες ἐπιχώριοι πάντες εἰσί, ξένοι δ' οὐκ ἐπιδημοῦσι ῥᾳδίως οὐδ' αὐτοὶ οὗτοι μένουσιν αὐτόθι, ἀλλὰ καὶ τελειοῦνται ἐκδημήσαντες καὶ τελειωθέντες ξενιτεύουσιν ἡδέως, κατέρχονται δ' ὀλίγοι. ταῖς δ' ἄλλαις πόλεσιν ἃς ἀρτίως εἶπον πλὴν Ἀλεξανδρείας συμβαίνει τἀναντία φοιτῶσι γὰρ εἰς αὐτὰς πολλοὶ καὶ διατρίβουσιν αὐτόθι ἄσμενοι, τῶν δ' ἐπιχωρίων οὐ πολλοὺς οὔτ' ἂν ἔξω φοιτῶντας ἴδοις κατὰ φιλομάθειαν, οὔτ' αὐτόθι περὶ τοῦτο σπουδάζοντας Ἀλεξανδρεῦσι δ' ἀμφότερα συμβαίνει καὶ γὰρ δέχονται πολλοὺς τῶν ξένων καὶ ἐκπέμπουσι τῶν ἰδίων οὐκ ὀλίγους... καὶ εἰσὶ σχολαὶ παρ' αὐτοῖς παντοδαπαὶ τῶν περὶ λόγους τεχνῶν, καὶ τἆλλα δ' εὐανδρεῖ καὶ πλεῖστον δύναται τὸν τῆς μητροπόλεως ἐπέχουσα λόγον. ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία general education, prior to professional studies (lit. rounded education a terminology that only came into vogue ca. 50 BC) ἐπιδημέω, to live at home; (of foreigners) to come to stay ξενῑτεύω, live abroad κατέρχομαι, I. to go down; II. to go back; to return εὐανδρέω, to abound in men τἆλλα adverbial, for the rest τὸν τῆς μητροπόλεως ἐπέχουσα λόγον Type 1 hyperbaton. The participle gives us a hint as to the subject here, which must be ἡ πόλις Ταρσός. 15

The Magi (15,3,15) Cappadocia was close to the place of Strabo s birth and upbringing where he had been an eye-witness of Magian priests. Zoroastrianism had always been strong in Cappadocia, whose calendar was also Zoroastrian. Strabo s testimony is thus from around the same time as the Magi appeared in Jerusalem (ca. 4 BC). Ἐν δὲ τῇ Καππαδοκίᾳ (πολὺ γὰρ ἐκεῖ τὸ τῶν Μάγων φῦλον, οἳ καὶ πύραιθοι καλοῦνται πολλὰ δὲ καὶ τῶν Περσικῶν θεῶν ἱερά), οὐδὲ μαχαίρᾳ θύουσιν, ἀλλὰ κορμῷ τινι ὡς ἂν ὑπέρῳ τύπτοντες. ἔστι δὲ καὶ πυραιθεῖα, σηκοί τινες ἀξιόλογοι ἐν δὲ τούτοις μέσοις βωμός, ἐν ᾧ πολλή τε σποδός, καὶ πῦρ ἄσβεστον φυλάττουσιν οἱ Μάγοι καὶ καθ' ἡμέραν δὲ εἰσιόντες, ἐπᾴδουσιν ὥραν σχεδόν τι πρὸ τοῦ πυρὸς τὴν δέσμην τῶν ῥάβδων ἔχοντες, τιάρας περικείμενοι πιλωτὰς καθεικυίας ἑκατέρωθεν μέχρι τοῦ καλύπτειν τὰ χείλη τὰς παραγναθίδας. ταὐτὰ δ' ἐν τοῖς τῆς Ἀναΐτιδος καὶ τοῦ Ὠμάνου ἱεροῖς νενόμισται τούτων δὲ καὶ σηκοί εἰσι, καὶ ξόανον τοῦ Ὠμάνου πομπεύει. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἡμεῖς ἑωράκαμεν, ἐκεῖνα δ' ἐν ταῖς ἱστορίαις λέγεται καὶ τὰ ἐφεξῆς. Stone relief from Dascylium showing two Magi offering πύραιθοι, οἱ, (αἴθω) the Persian fire-worshippers (coinage) κορμός, ὁ, (sawn-off) trunk of a tree ὕπερον, τό, pestle σηκος, ὁ enclosure, I. pen (for animals); II. sacred enclosure, precinct δέσμη, ἡ, package, bundle πῑλωτός, ή, όν, of felt παραγνᾰθίς, ίδος, ἡ, cheek (piece) καθίημι, to let fall; drop; send down sacrifice with their stick bundles in hand and mouths covered by the flaps of the tiara's κορμῷ τινι τύπτοντες This clubbing to death of the victim has been corroborated by other Iranian evidence. 9 πυραιθεῖα The development of the fire-cult in Zoroastrianism post-dates Herodotus.10 πῦρ ἄσβεστον It has been argued by commentators that it would have been impossible to keep an fire ever-burning if it were outside. 11 μέχρι τοῦ καλύπτειν τὰ χείλη τὰς παραγναθίδας We have the unusual word-order infinitive-object-subject here. The flaps were used to cover the mouth in this ritual. τῆς Ἀναΐτιδος καὶ τοῦ Ὠμάνου Anaitis and Omanos are Old Persian gods. The exact identity of Omanus in relation to Old Persian divinities is debated. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἡμεῖς ἑωράκαμεν, ἐκεῖνα δ' ἐν ταῖς ἱστορίαις λέγεται These things are the things described here. Strabo s History is no longer extant. 9 See De Jong, Traditions, 146-47. 10 See De Jong, Traditions, 93-94. 11 See De Jong, Traditions, 148. 16

Judea (16,2,34-37) Strabo himself never visited Judea, but relied upon the testimony of others for his description. 34 Τῆς δ' Ἰουδαίας τὰ μὲν ἑσπέρια ἄκρα τὰ πρὸς τῷ Κασίῳ κατέχουσιν Ἰδουμαῖοί τε καὶ ἡ λίμνη. Ναβαταῖοι δ' εἰσὶν οἱ Ἰδουμαῖοι, κατὰ στάσιν δ' ἐκπεσόντες ἐκεῖθεν προσεχώρησαν τοῖς Ἰουδαίοις καὶ τῶν νομίμων τῶν αὐτῶν ἐκείνοις ἐκοινώνησαν πρὸς θαλάττῃ δὲ ἡ Σιρβωνὶς τὰ πολλὰ κατέχει καὶ ἡ συνεχὴς μέχρι καὶ Ἱεροσολύμων καὶ γὰρ ταῦτα πρὸς θαλάττῃ ἐστίν ἀπὸ γὰρ τοῦ ἐπινείου τῆς Ἰόπης εἴρηται ὅτι ἐστὶν ἐν ὄψει ταῦτα μὲν προσάρκτια τὰ πολλὰ δ' ὡς ἕκαστα ἐστὶν ὑπὸ φύλων οἰκούμενα μικτῶν ἔκ τε Αἰγυπτίων ἐθνῶν καὶ Ἀραβίων καὶ Φοινίκων τοιοῦτοι γὰρ οἱ τὴν Γαλιλαίαν ἔχοντες καὶ τὸν Ἱερικοῦντα καὶ τὴν Φιλαδέλφειαν καὶ Σαμάρειαν, ἣν Ἡρώδης Σεβαστὴν ἐπωνόμασεν. οὕτω δ' ὄντων μιγάδων ἡ κρατοῦσα μάλιστα φήμη τῶν περὶ τὸ ἱερὸν τὸ ἐν τοῖς Ἱεροσολύμοις πιστευομένων Αἰγυπτίους ἀποφαίνει τοὺς προγόνους τῶν νῦν Ἰουδαίων λεγομένων. προσάρκτιος, -ον, northerly (i.e. towards the constellation of the great Bear) ἐπίνειον, τό, (ναῦς) sea-port (where the fleet of a country lies) μιγάς, -άδος, ὁ / ἡ, mixed pell-mell κρατέω + gen. to rule over Ναβαταῖοι δ' εἰσὶν οἱ Ἰδουμαῖοι, κατὰ στάσιν δ' ἐκπεσόντες This is not quite true. The movement of the (Arabic) Nabataeans further westwards pushed the Idumaeans (= Edomites) into Southern Judea. The Nabataean king Aretas IV is mentioned in 2 Cor. 11:32. καὶ τῶν νομίμων τῶν αὐτῶν ἐκείνοις ἐκοινώνησαν In fact, as Josephus (Ant. 13,257) describes, it was the Maccabean ruler Hyrcanus who compelled the Idumaeans to convert and be circumcised. ἡ συνεχὴς (sc. χώρα) ἣν Ἡρώδης Σεβαστὴν ἐπωνόμασεν Which he did, contributing to various public buildings including a pagan temple, in 27 BC. οὕτω δ' ὄντων μιγάδων (sc. ἐθνῶν) ἡ κρατοῦσα... φήμη τῶν περὶ τὸ ἱερὸν... πιστευομένων The report which rules over the things which are believed concerning the sanctuary, i.e. the most believable report. 17

35 Μωσῆς γάρ τις τῶν Αἰγυπτίων ἱερέων ἔχων τι μέρος τῆς [κάτω] καλουμένης χώρας, ἀπῆρεν ἐκεῖσε ἐνθένδε δυσχεράνας τὰ καθεστῶτα, καὶ συνεξῆραν αὐτῷ πολλοὶ τιμῶντες τὸ θεῖον. ἔφη γὰρ ἐκεῖνος καὶ ἐδίδασκεν, ὡς οὐκ ὀρθῶς φρονοῖεν οἱ Αἰγύπτιοι θηρίοις εἰκάζοντες καὶ βοσκήμασι τὸ θεῖον, οὐδ' οἱ Λίβυες οὐκ εὖ δὲ οὐδ' οἱ Ἕλληνες ἀνθρωπομόρφους τυποῦντες εἴη γὰρ ἓν τοῦτο μόνον θεὸς τὸ περιέχον ἡμᾶς ἅπαντας καὶ γῆν καὶ θάλατταν, ὃ καλοῦμεν οὐρανὸν καὶ κόσμον καὶ τὴν τῶν ὄντων φύσιν. τούτου δὴ τίς ἂν εἰκόνα πλάττειν θαρρήσειε νοῦν ἔχων ὁμοίαν τινὶ τῶν παρ' ἡμῖν ἀλλ' ἐᾶν δεῖν πᾶσαν ξοανοποιίαν, τέμενος [δ'] ἀφορίσαντας καὶ σηκὸν ἀξιόλογον τιμᾶν ἕδους χωρίς. ἐγκοιμᾶσθαι δὲ καὶ αὐτοὺς ὑπὲρ ἑαυτῶν καὶ ὑπὲρ τῶν ἄλλων ἄλλους τοὺς εὐονείρους καὶ προσδοκᾶν δεῖν ἀγαθὸν παρὰ τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ δῶρον ἀεί τι καὶ σημεῖον τοὺς σωφρόνως ζῶντας καὶ μετὰ δικαιοσύνης, τοὺς δ' ἄλλους μὴ προσδοκᾶν. ἐκεῖσε, thither δυσχεραίνω, to be unable to endure or put up with τὰ καθεστῶτα the established things, i.e. the present state of life τυπόω, to form / mould / model σηκός, ὁ, pen / fold (for animals); (sacred) enclosure ἐάω + acc. to leave alone / let be ἕδος, -εος, τό, seated (statue of a god) ἀπῆρεν Despite being used absolutely the transitive sense of (ἀπ-)αίρω is still implied. The verb is thus used of a leader or commander. He departed, that is, he led away ships or an army (implied). Here, of course, Moses led away a group of people. συνεξῆραν αὐτῷ The absolute use of ἐξαίρω here could be interpreted in several ways. The following dative goes with the prefix συν-. Strabo has deliberately changed the prefix ἀπο- to ἐξ-. The many do not function as leaders in departing. We must interpret the verb as an internal accusative either in the sense the many lifted themselves up [i.e. to go] with him or the many roused themselves with him in honouring the divinity. The latter seems more likely to me. The following participle is then explanatory. εἰκόνα... ὁμοίαν The ὁμοίαν refers back to (τὴν) εἰκόνα. ἕδους χωρίς One would not naturally expect χωρίς when used as a prefix to be positioned after the noun it governs. 36 Ἐκεῖνος μὲν οὖν τοιαῦτα λέγων ἔπεισεν εὐγνώμονας ἄνδρας οὐκ ὀλίγους καὶ ἀπήγαγεν ἐπὶ τὸν τόπον τοῦτον, ὅπου νῦν ἐστι τὸ ἐν τοῖς Ἱεροσολύμοις κτίσμα. κατέσχε δὲ ῥᾳδίως οὐκ ἐπίφθονον ὂν τὸ χωρίον οὐδ' ὑπὲρ οὗ ἄν τις ἐσπουδασμένως μαχέσαιτο ἔστι γὰρ πετρῶδες, αὐτὸ μὲν εὔυδρον τὴν δὲ κύκλῳ χώραν ἔχον λυπρὰν καὶ ἄνυδρον, τὴν δ' ἐντὸς ἑξήκοντα σταδίων καὶ ὑπόπετρον. ἅμα δ' ἀντὶ τῶν ὅπλων τὰ ἱερὰ προὐβάλλετο καὶ τὸ θεῖον, ἵδρυσιν τούτου ζητεῖν ἀξιῶν, καὶ παραδώσειν ὑπισχνούμενος τοιοῦτον σεβασμὸν καὶ τοιαύτην ἱεροποιίαν ἥτις οὔτε δαπάναις ὀχλήσει τοὺς χρωμένους οὔτε θεοφορίαις οὔτε ἄλλαις πραγματείαις ἀτόποις. οὗτος μὲν οὖν εὐδοκιμήσας τούτοις συνεστήσατο ἀρχὴν οὐ τὴν τυχοῦσαν, ἁπάντων προσχωρησάντων ῥᾳδίως τῶν κύκλῳ διὰ τὴν ὁμιλίαν καὶ τὰ προτεινόμενα. ἐπιφθονος, ον, liable to envy or jealousy, looked on with jealousy, odious λυπρός, ά, όν, (λυπέω, cf. λυπηρός) distressful, wretched, poor ὑπόπετρος, ον, rocky ἵδρυσις, -εως, ἡ, founding, foundation (esp. of temples) προβάλλομαι, to hold in front of oneself as protection ὀχλέω, to trouble / disturb εὐδοκῐμέω, to be highly esteemed τοὺς χρωμένους (sc. τῷ ἱερῷ) οὐ τὴν τυχοῦσαν The aor. participle of τυγχάνω is often used to describe a chance person or event. When negated it indicates something uncommon and therefore special. 18

37 Οἱ δὲ διαδεξάμενοι χρόνους μέν τινας ἐν τοῖς αὐτοῖς διέμενον δικαιοπραγοῦντες καὶ θεοσεβεῖς ὡς ἀληθῶς ὄντες, ἔπειτ' ἐφισταμένων ἐπὶ τὴν ἱερωσύνην τὸ μὲν πρῶτον δεισιδαιμόνων, ἔπειτα τυραννικῶν ἀνθρώπων, ἐκ μὲν τῆς δεισιδαιμονίας αἱ τῶν βρωμάτων ἀποσχέσεις, ὧνπερ καὶ νῦν ἔθος ἐστὶν αὐτοῖς ἀπέχεσθαι, καὶ [αἱ] περιτομαὶ καὶ αἱ ἐκτομαὶ καὶ εἴ τινα τοιαῦτα ἐνομίσθη, ἐκ δὲ τῶν τυραννίδων τὰ λῃστήρια. οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀφιστάμενοι τὴν χώραν ἐκάκουν καὶ αὐτὴν καὶ τὴν γειτνιῶσαν, οἱ δὲ συμπράττοντες τοῖς ἄρχουσι καθήρπαζον τὰ ἀλλότρια καὶ τῆς Συρίας κατεστρέφοντο καὶ τῆς Φοινίκης πολλήν. ἦν δ' ὅμως εὐπρέπειά τις περὶ τὴν ἀκρόπολιν αὐτῶν, οὐχ ὡς τυραννεῖον βδελυττομένων, ἀλλ' ὡς ἱερὸν σεμνυνόντων καὶ σεβομένων. καὶ αἱ ἐκτομαὶ Strangely enough, Strabo seems to be thinking of female circumcision. At 16,4,9 he speaks of καὶ αἱ γυναῖκες ἰουδαϊκῶς ἐκτετμημέναι. οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀφιστάμενοι τὴν χώραν ἐκάκουν κτλ. Strabo is here referring to the Maccabean revolt and its wake of priest-kings who terrorised the surrounding countryside. We know from the extant fragments of Strabo s historical work, that he dealt with the various Maccabean kings. 19

The Dead Sea (16,2,42) Not having been to Palestine himself, Strabo confuses the Dead Sea with Lake Sirbonis, which was a wellknown bog at the East end of the Nile delta in Egypt. Ἡ δὲ Σιρβωνὶς λίμνη πολλὴ μέν ἐστι καὶ γὰρ χιλίων σταδίων εἰρήκασί τινες τὸν κύκλον τῇ μέντοι παραλίᾳ παρεκτέταται μικρῷ τι πλέον τῶν διακοσίων σταδίων μῆκος ἐπιλαμβάνουσα, ἀγχιβαθής, βαρύτατον ἔχουσα ὕδωρ, ὥστε μὴ δεῖν κολύμβου, ἀλλὰ τὸν ἐμβάντα καὶ μέχρι ὀμφαλοῦ εὐθὺς ἐξαίρεσθαι μεστὴ δ' ἐστὶν ἀσφάλτου αὕτη δὲ ἀναφυσᾶται κατὰ καιροὺς ἀτάκτους ἐκ μέσου τοῦ βάθους μετὰ πομφολύγων ὡς ἂν ζέοντος ὕδατος κυρτουμένη δ' ἡ ἐπιφάνεια λόφου φαντασίαν παρέχει συναναφέρεται δὲ καὶ ἄσβολος πολλή, καπνώδης μὲν πρὸς δὲ τὴν ὄψιν ἄδηλος, ὑφ' ἧς κατιοῦται καὶ χαλκὸς καὶ ἄργυρος καὶ πᾶν τὸ στιλπνὸν μέχρι καὶ χρυσοῦ ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ κατιοῦσθαι τὰ σκεύη γνωρίζουσιν οἱ περιοικοῦντες ἀρχομένην τὴν ἀναβολὴν τοῦ ἀσφάλτου, καὶ παρασκευάζονται πρὸς τὴν μεταλλείαν αὐτοῦ, ποιησάμενοι σχεδίας καλαμίνας. ἔστι δ' ἡ ἄσφαλτος γῆς βῶλος, ὑγραινομένη μὲν ὑπὸ θερμοῦ καὶ ἀναφυσωμένη καὶ διαχεομένη, πάλιν δὲ μεταβάλλουσα εἰς πάγον ἰσχυρὸν ὑπὸ τοῦ ψυχροῦ ὕδατος, οἷόν ἐστι τὸ τῆς λίμνης ὕδωρ, ὥστε τομῆς καὶ κοπῆς δεῖσθαι εἶτ' ἐπιπολάζουσα διὰ τὴν φύσιν τοῦ ὕδατος, καθ' ἣν ἔφαμεν μηδὲ κολύμβου δεῖσθαι, μηδὲ βαπτίζεσθαι τὸν ἐμβάντα ἀλλ' ἐξαίρεσθαι προσπλεύσαντες δὲ ταῖς σχεδίαις κόπτουσι καὶ φέρονται τῆς ἀσφάλτου ὅσον ἕκαστος δύναται. Me floating in the Dead Sea sometime last century ἐπιλαμβάνω, to attain to / reach ἀγχιβᾰθής, ές, deep inshore (i.e. the water is deep right up to the shoreline) κολύμβος, ὁ, swimming ἀναφῡσάω, blow forth πομφόλυξ, -ῠγος, ἡ, bubble κυρτόω, to hump up / make convex λόφος, ὁ, crest ἄσβολος, ἡ, soot ἄδηλος, -ον, unseen, invisible κατιόομαι, to become rusty / tarnished στιλπνός, -ή, -όν, glittering, glistening μεταλλεία, ἡ, searching for metals and the like, mining σχεδία, ἡ, raft, float κᾰλάμῐνος [λᾰ], -η, -ον, of reed βῶλος, ἡ, lump, clod of earth πάγος [ᾰ], ὁ, (πήγνυμι) prop., that which is fixed or firmly set: I. crag, rock, ΙΙ. frost ἐπιπολάζω, to be at the top / come to the surface / float on the surface ὥστε τομῆς καὶ κοπῆς δεῖσθαι This obviously refers to the asphalt, not to the water. 20

Stoic Theology of Creation (17,1,36) Stoicism was the most popular form of philosophy among the Greeks and Romans during the first centuries BC and AD. Although Strabo s education had been from Aristotelian tutors, he reveals himself as a Stoic in his writings.... καὶ νῦν δ' ἐπὶ τοσοῦτον ὑπομνηστέον [τὸ] τῆς φύσεως ἅμα καὶ τὸ τῆς προνοίας ἔργον εἰς ἓν συμφέροντας τὸ μὲν τῆς φύσεως, ὅτι τῶν πάντων ὑφ' ἓν συννευόντων τὸ τοῦ ὅλου μέσον καὶ σφαιρουμένων περὶ τοῦτο, τὸ μὲν πυκνότατον καὶ μεσαίτατόν ἐστιν ἡ γῆ, τὸ δ' ἧττον τοιοῦτον καὶ ἐφεξῆς τὸ ὕδωρ, ἑκάτερον δὲ σφαῖρα, ἡ μὲν στερεά, ἡ δὲ κοίλη ἐντὸς ἔχουσα τὴν γῆν τὸ δὲ τῆς προνοίας, ὅτι βεβούληται καὶ αὐτὴ ποικίλτριά τις οὖσα καὶ μυρίων ἔργων δημιουργὸς ἐν τοῖς πρώτοις ζῷα γεννᾶν ὡς πολὺ διαφέροντα τῶν ἄλλων καὶ τούτων τὰ κράτιστα θεούς τε καὶ ἀνθρώπους, ὧν ἕνεκεν καὶ τὰ ἄλλα συνέστηκε. τοῖς μὲν οὖν θεοῖς ἀπέδειξε τὸν οὐρανὸν τοῖς δ' ἀνθρώποις τὴν γῆν, τὰ ἄκρα τῶν τοῦ κόσμου μερῶν ἄκρα δὲ τῆς σφαίρας τὸ μέσον καὶ τὸ ἐξωτάτω. ἀλλ' ἐπειδὴ τῇ γῇ περίκειται τὸ ὕδωρ, οὐκ ἔστι δ' ἔνυδρον ζῷον ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ἀλλὰ χερσαῖον καὶ ἐναέριον καὶ πολλοῦ κοινωνικὸν φωτός, ἐποίησεν ἐξοχὰς ἐν τῇ γῇ πολλὰς καὶ εἰσοχάς, ὥστ' ἐν αἷς μὲν ἀπολαμβάνεσθαι τὸ σύμπαν ἢ καὶ τὸ πλέον ὕδωρ ἀποκρύπτον τὴν ὑπ' αὐτῷ γῆν, ἐν αἷς δ' ἐξέχειν τὴν γῆν ἀποκρύπτουσαν ὑφ' ἑαυτῇ τὸ ὕδωρ, πλὴν ὅσον χρήσιμον τῷ ἀνθρωπείῳ γένει καὶ τοῖς περὶ αὐτὸ ζῴοις καὶ φυτοῖς. ἐπεὶ δ' ἐν κινήσει συνεχεῖ τὰ σύμπαντα καὶ μεταβολαῖς μεγάλαις (οὐ γὰρ οἷόν τε ἄλλως τὰ τοιαῦτα καὶ τοσαῦτα καὶ τηλικαῦτα ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ διοικεῖσθαι), ὑποληπτέον μήτε τὴν γῆν ἀεὶ συμμένειν οὕτως ὥστ' ἀεὶ τηλικαύτην εἶναι μηδὲν προστιθεῖσαν ἑαυτῇ μηδ' ἀφαιροῦσαν, μήτε τὸ ὕδωρ, μηδὲ τὴν ἕδραν ἔχειν τὴν αὐτὴν ἑκάτερον, καὶ ταῦτα εἰς ἄλληλα φυσικωτάτης οὔσης καὶ ἐγγυτάτω τῆς μεταπτώσεως, ἀλλὰ καὶ τῆς γῆς πολλὴν εἰς ὕδωρ μεταβάλλειν, καὶ τῶν ὑδάτων πολλὰ χερσοῦσθαι τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον ὅνπερ καὶ ἐν τῇ γῇ, καθ' ἣν αὐτὴν τοσαῦται διαφοραί ἡ μὲν γὰρ εὔθρυπτος ἡ δὲ στερεὰ καὶ πετρώδης καὶ σιδηρῖτις καὶ οὕτως ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς ὑγρᾶς οὐσίας, ἡ μὲν ἁλμυρὶς ἡ δὲ γλυκεῖα καὶ πότιμος, ἡ δὲ φαρμακώδης καὶ σωτήριος καὶ ὀλέθριος καὶ ψυχρὰ καὶ θερμή. τί οὖν θαυμαστὸν εἴ τινα μέρη τῆς γῆς ἃ νῦν οἰκεῖται θαλάττῃ πρότερον κατείχετο, τὰ δὲ νῦν πελάγη πρότερον ᾠκεῖτο καθάπερ καὶ πηγὰς τὰς πρότερον ἐκλιπεῖν συνέβη, τὰς δ' ἀνεῖσθαι, καὶ ποταμοὺς καὶ λίμνας, οὕτω δὲ καὶ ὄρη καὶ πεδία εἰς ἄλληλα μεταπίπτειν περὶ ὧν καὶ πρότερον εἰρήκαμεν πολλὰ καὶ νῦν εἰρήσθω. πυκνός, ή, όν, close-packed, firm, solid ποικίλτρια, ἡ, broiderer, pattern-weaver διαφέρω (intrans.) to be different; to surpass / excel (often with gen.) χερσαῖος, α, ον, from / of dry land ἐξοχή, ἡ, (ἐξέχω), preeminence, jutting out εἰσοχή, ἡ, (εἰσέχω) hollow, recess μετάπτωσις, -εως, ἡ, change εὔθρυπτος, ον, (θρύπτω) easily broken ἁλμυρίς, ίδος, ἡ, anything salt ἐπὶ τοσοῦτον Lit. unto this much, that is, as far as it goes / as much as is appropriate at this point, a way of apologising for such a short note. τὸ σύμπαν (sc. ὕδωρ) καὶ ταῦτα εἰς ἄλληλα (sc. μεταβάλλειν) 21