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1 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO FOUNDED BY J0I1N D. ROCKEFELLER THE DECENNIAL PUBLICATIONS THE MEANING OFfrrlτή? σκηνήδ IN WRITERS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY BY ROY C. FLICKINGER ASSISTANT IN GREEK FRINTED FROM VOLUME VI CHICAGO THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 1902

2 Copyright 1902 BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRINTED OCTOBER 1, 1902

3 THE MEANING OF hrl τή δ σκηνή? IN WRITERS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY R O T C. FLICKINGER THERE are several passages in Aristotle's Poetics that are of great importance to the student of scenic antiquities, whatever his opinion may be regarding a raised stage in the Greek theater of the fourth century before Christ. They were brought into the controversy long ago, but the adherents of each theory have contented themselves with merely stating their own interpretation of the isolated point at issue, in opposition to that of their opponents, without careful analysis of the entire context in each case. Consequently no progress toward the complete understanding of these passages has been made. They were first cited as having a bearing upon the stage question by Mr. H. Richards, in the Classical Review, Vol. V (1891), p. 97: Before we accept Dr. Dorpfeld's theory that the actors in a Greek theater performed in the orchestra, and not on the stage, some explanation ought to be forthcoming of certain passages in the Poetics of Aristotle, in which the contrary seems to be implied. Aristotle several times uses επί της σκηνής in a way very hard to reconcile with the new theory These passages (to which others of a similar kind could be added from later writers) appear to be decisive, unless any one will maintain that σκηνή came to be applied to the orchestra or some part of it. But is there any evidence for that? And, further, does not the word Ιπί imply something raised above the level? In Mr. F. B. Jevons, in the Gardner-Jevons Manual of Greek Antiquities, p. 678, wrote : "Aristotle repeatedly uses the phrase evl της σκηνής, in which σκηνή can scarcely mean the orchestra or any part of it, and evt naturally means 'on' and implies elevation ;" and M. Octave Navarre, in Dionysos, pp. 105 ff.: "Aristote dit que la trag6die ne peut pas repr6senter plusieurs ev^nements h la fois, mais seulement 'la partie de Taction qui s'accomplit sur la scbne et par les acteurs.'' La scsne est, on le voit, d sign6e de la fa on la plus nette comme le lieu affect aux acteurs." In the following year Dr. Emil Reisch, 2 in Dorpfeld-Reisch, Das griechische Theater, pp. 284 ff., published the following explanation : Wie die Schauspieler άπο σκηνής kommen und sprechen, so bewegen sie sich in der Regel wshrend des Spieles iirl σκηνής, in der Nahe der Skene, ja hatifig genug bleiben sie auf den Stufen des Hauses oder in dem von den Paraskenien begrenzten Vorraum des Hauses. Daher konnen sie kurzweg als oi im σκηνής bezeichnet werden; doch ist zu bemerken, dass dieser Ausdruck niemals so wie οί από σκηνής im Gegensatz zum Chor gesagt wird, weil auch der Chor 1 In the Revue critique, Vol. XXVI (1892), p. 450, Mr. S. welche das Wort σκηνή auf das gedielte podium, oder wenn Reinach referred to Mr. Richards's argument with apparent man das nicht zugeben will, auf den Platz beschrankt, approval. CHRIST, " Bedeutungswechsel einiger auf das auf dem gespielt wurde," quoting Aristotle's use. griech. Theater bezttglichen Ausdrflcke," Jahrb. f. class. 2Dr. DOrpfeld agrees with his collaborator in this: cf. Phil., Vol. CIL (1894), p. 39, said: " Die vierte Bedeutung, ibidp_

4 4 MEANING OF evi T?}<? σκηνής IN WRITERS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY 26 haiifig in der Nilhe der Skene zu thun hat. Es ist also damit durchaus nicht eine Scheidung der Schauspielpersonen beabsichtigt. Allerdings wtirde der Ausdruck ΙπΙ σκηνής von den Schauspielern auch dann gebraucht werden konnen, wenn der Vorraum vor dem Hause durch eine Blihne gebildet wiirde. Aber bloss aus diesem Ausdruck heraus lasst sich das Vorhandensein einer Btihne nicht erschliessen. Denn es ware nattirlich ein arger Fehlschluss, wenn man aus den Worten inl σκηνής und άπο σκηνής folgern wollte: σκηνή heisst "Buhne."... Nach dem, was wir uber die Bedeutung von σκηνή auseinander gesetzt haben, konnen ftir ΙπΙ σκηνής in der envahnten tjpischen Verwendung (ot oder τά evt σκηνής) nur zwei Uebersetzungen in Betracht kommen: "auf dem Hause" und "bei dem Hause." Die erstere Auffassung hatte selbst dann ihre Bedenken, wenn man in der Skene eine Buhne annehmen wollte, die wie die romische Buhne einen integrirenden Bestandteil des Schauspielhauses gebildet hatte. Denn dann ware eher die Wendung iv σκηνη " in scaena " zu erwarten. Die zweite Auffassung dagegen hat alle sprachlichen Analogien fur sich. Dass das Vorwort Ιπί (mit Genetiv, Dativ und Accusativ) nicht nur zur Bezeichnung von HOhenunterschieden, sondem auch zur Bezeichnung der Nachbarschaft zweier auf gleichem Boden befindlicher Dinge verwendet wild, dlirfte wohl bekannt genug sein. Aber es ist vielleicht nicht iiberflussig, darauf hinzuweisen, dass ίπί gerade mit den Bezeichnungen des Hauses sehr haiifig in diesem Sinne verbunden zu werden pflegt Die Beispiele dtirften gentigen, urn zu der Annahme zu berechtigen, dass man die Wendung evt σκηνής ursprtinglich im Sinne von ίπί οίκίας " vor, bei dem Hause" gebraucht hat. Naturlich erhielt der Ausdruck dann sehr bald formelhafte Geltung und bezeichnet kurzweg: "auf dem (vor der Skene befindlichen)spielplatz." Mr. A. E. Haigh, in The Attic Theatre (2d ed., 1898), pp. 189 f., lias said: Aristotle in many places speaks of the songs of the actors as τα άπό τής σκηνής, in opposition to the songs of the chorus, τα τον χορον. Further, he speaks of the actor's part as being played em τής σκηνής. According to the usual interpretation of these passages, he means that the actors played their part " upon the stage," and sang their songs " from the stage." Dorpfeld, however, proposes in these cases to translate the word σκηνή as the " background," and not as the " stage." He supposes Aristotle to mean that the actors performed " at the background," 2 and sang their songs " from the background." He denies that the two expressions imply the existence of a stage. Now, the translation that he suggests may be possible, as far as the Greek is concerned. But it is very difficult to believe that they are the right translations in these particular passages of Aristotle. Aristotle's words seem to clearly imply that there was some essential and conspicuous difference between the position of the actors and that of the chorus. But if, as Dorpfeld thinks, they all performed together in the orchestra, there would be no such distinguishing mark. It is true that the actors might, for the most part, be rather nearer the stage buildings; and the chorus might, for the most part, be rather more distant from them. But practically they would be standing in the same place; there would be no pronounced difference. Aristotle's words appear to be explicable only on the supposition that the actors appeared upon a stage, the chorus in the orchestra. More recently Professor A. Miiller," Untersuchungen zu den Btilmenalterthumern," Philologus, Supplementband VII (1899), pp. 6-12, wrote: Wir miissen derselben [?. e., Reisch's view] jedoch unsere Zustimmung versagen, da wir uns verpflichtet fiihlen, auf Grand der folgenden Erorterung das Vorhandensein einer Btihne im attischen Theater als sicher anzunehmen. 3Itwill be observed that Haigh's "at tlie background" by no means accurately reproduces tlie DOrpfeld-Reiseh " auf dem Spielplatz."

5 ROY C. FLICKINGER 5 Wir gehen davon aus, dass die Schauspieler ihren eigenthiimlichen Standort in der N&he des Spielhauses hatten, und dass dieser durch die im Druck hervorgehobenen Worte der folgenden Stellen des Aristoteles bezeichnet wird, zu dessen Zeiten noch ebenso im Theater gespielt wurde, wie im V. Jahrhundert (S. Dorpf., S. 379) Giebt es nun Stellen, an denen Personen, welche sich von der Parodos aus zu dem gewohnlichen Standorte der Schauspieler begeben, einen Aufstieg, oder solche, welche vom gewohnlichen Standorte der Schauspieler zur Parados gehen, einen Abstieg vornehmen mtissen, so ist der Schluss geboten, dass jener Standort erhoht war. Und solche Stellen finden sich in den altesten Komodien des Aristophanes Wenn nun die vorstehende unbefangene Erorterung einiger aristophanischer Stellen und Scholien das Ergebniss geliefert hat, dass der gewohnliche Standort der Schauspieler erhoht war, und wenn bei Aristoteles die Schauspieler ol άπό σκηνης heissen, ihre Partie τό evi σκηνής und ihre Lieder τά από σκηνης genannt werden, so ist der Schluss gerechtfertigt, dass dieser erhohte Standort eben σκηνή hiess. In the course of an investigation on the subject of the Greek theater and drama in the time of Plutarch I have found myself obliged to trace the history of the word σκηνή from the earliest times in order to determine, as precisely as possible, its exact meaning everywhere, and particularly in such phrases as euro τής σκηνής, έπϊ της σκηνής, and iv τη σκηνη, which occur with great frequency in the later literature. The subject itself is not a new one. The large collection of material brought together by Wieseler in 1870, in the Ersch-Gruber Encyclopadie, Vol. IV, pp. 159 if., s. v. " Griechisches Theater," has furnished investigators in the field of scenic antiquities with a large proportion of their instances of the word's use. Notable among these scholars are Christ, 6 Muller, 6 and Reisch. 7 The two former adhere, in the main, to the outline of the successive changes of meaning of σκηνή laid down by Wieseler, while the last-named adopts an explanation consistent with the Dorpfeld theory of the stage, eliminating the meaning "stage" for the classical period of Greek literature. All of these scholars have contributed to the solution of the perplexing problem in a greater or less degree, but nevertheless all have, in my opinion, been too prone to classify their material en masse under convenient rubrics largely determined by their own position in the stage controversy, instead of subjecting each separate instance or category to a discriminating scrutiny, testing first the context in which the word occurs and then ranging the instances appropriately in accordance with a strictly historical view of the development of the meanings of the word or the phrase. It so happens, therefore, that the same passage is often used by both parties to prove things exactly opposite, as is illustrated by the quotations given above concerning the Aristotelian usage. In the course of my study I became convinced that Aristotle's use of the term, *Here follows a discussion of those passages in Aris- Fragen," Jahr.f. class. Phil., Supplementband XIX (1893), tophanes that involve the use of άναβαίνΐΐ.ΐ' and similar PP. 699 f., 721. expressions. This phase of the subject has been already sjahrb.f. Phil., Vol. CIL (1894), pp. 38 FF. sufficiently treated by WHITE, " The ' Stage' in Aristoph- 6 BUhnenalterthiimer (1880) and Philologies, Supplementanes," Harvard Studies, Vol. II (1891), pp. 164 ff.; CAPPS, band VII (1899), pp. 3 ff. " The Stage in the Greek Theater," Trans. Am. Phil. Ass., 7 Zeitschrift f. d. Osterr. Gymnasien, Vol. XXXVIII (1887), Vol. XXII (1891), pp. 64 ff.; BODENSTEINEE, "Szenische pp. 276 ff., and Das griechische Theater (1896), pp. 283 ff. 15

6 6 MEANING OF εττϊ τής σκηνής IN WRITERS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY so far as it extended, was quite consistent with that of Plutarch and his contemporaries; in fact, that only by gaining a correct idea of the meaning of the phrases in question in Aristotle could one secure the right point of departure for the interpretation of the idioms in Plutarch. The Aristotelian passages were first attacked in a discriminating way and made the basis of a general classification by Edward Capps, who, however, has published only an abstract of his conclusions. 8 Approaching the subject originally from the point of view of Plutarch's usage, I have found myself in substantial agreement with Professor Capps's conclusions, and at his suggestion, and availing myself of his collections, with which he allowed me to supplement my own, and his constant criticism and advice, I have thought it well to state fully the case as far as concerns Aristotle, reserving for a later occasion the results of my studies in Plutarch and the later literature except in so far as it may seem advisable to quote here later instances in illustration of the usage of the earlier period. I take this opportunity to acknowledge my obligations to all my predecessors in this field. Before the middle of the fourth century the phrases evt τής σκηνής and απο τής σκηνής do not occur with reference to the theater. My excuse for restricting myself in the present paper to the consideration of the usage of a single period, the fourth century, is the overwhelming importance of that period for the stage question. From the fifth century we have a large number of extant plays, and practically no one now contends for the Vitruvian stage in that century. 9 From later times theater ruins are numerous, but for the fourth century itself our evidence is comparatively scanty. But the opponents of the Dorpfeld theory insist upon identifying the proscenium with the Vitruvian stage, and the extant remains which give positive evidence of a proscenium happen not to be earlier than the latter half of the fourth century. At about this time, therefore, as Haigh, 10 Bethe, 11 and others 12 maintain, the actors, who had before this performed upon a low platform, were elevated suddenly to the full height of the proscenium. This could have been accomplished only by the sacrifice of the chorus, as the advocates of the high stage now clearly see; and they accordingly take refuge in the current but doubtful tradition, to the effect that the chorus was either given up altogether or "its functions were merely those of the modern band" or "of mere interlude-singers." Exactly what changes in the drama this period witnessed has not yet been fully made out, and we cannot enter upon the chorus question here. 13 However, even among those who accept Dr. Dorpfeld's theory for the fifth century, 14 there is a 8" 'Επί της σκηνής and Similar Expressions," Am. Jour. 13 For the evidence in favor of the existence beyond the Arch., Vol. V (1901) p. 31. limits of the fourth century of both the tragic and the 9 Except PDCHSTEIN, Die griechische Bilhne, who comic chorus, see CAPPS, " The Chorus in the Late Greek announces in his preface that ho disregards all evidence Drama," Am. Jour. Arch., Vol. Χ (1895), pp. 288 ff.; LEO, from the literary sources. In his review of this book, Rhein. Museum, Vol. LII (1897), pp. 509 ff.; A. KOKTE, " Das Classical Review, Vol. XV (1901), pp. 470 ff., Haigh seems Fortleben des Chors im griechischen Drama," N. Jahrb. ready to abandon the position which he had consistently / Phil., Vol. V (1900), pp. 81 ff.; REISCH, Das griech. maintained from the beginning. Theater, pp. 258 ff., and in the Pauly-Wissowa Real-Encyclo- 10 The Attic Theater 2, pp. 155 ff. padie, Vol. Ill, p. 2402, s. v. "Chor;" and CAPPS, Trans. 11 Prolegomena zur Geschichte des Theaters im Alter- Am - PhiL Ass -< Vo1 XXXI (1900) ' pp " 133 f " thum, pp. 243 ff., and GOtt. gelehr. Anzeiger, 1897, pp. 726 ff.»c/. WHITE, Harvard Studies, Vol. II (1891), p. 167, 12 CHRIST, Sitzungsberichte schaften, 1894, pp. 26 f. der bayer. Akad. der Wissen- NOTE 1 : AND ROBERT, Hermes, Vol. XXXII (1897), p. 447, and 111 G6tt - Odehr. Anzeiger, 1897, pp. 39 ff. 16

7 23 ROY C. FLICKINGER 7 tendency to go over to Vitruvius for the period represented by the Lycurgus theater at Athens and by the theater at Epidaurus the last quarter of the fourth century. In this dearth of evidence and abundance of conjecture anything bearing on the general question is of exceptional importance. But the subject of the present discussion is not merely important; though its bearing has been strangely overlooked, it is really fundamental. If επϊ τής σκηνής in Aristotle and his contemporaries means "on the stage," and if ειri in this phrase necessarily "implies elevation," we need 110 more evidence the great question is decided. For the subject under discussion much has been made of Plato, 15 Symposium, 194 b: e7πχήσμων μεντ* αν είην, ώ Άβαθων, είπεϊν τον Σωκράτην, el ίδών την σήν άνδρείαν καϊ μεγαχοφροσύνην αναβαίνοντας επϊ τον οκρίβαντα μετα των υποκριτών, καϊ βχεψαντος εναντία τοσούτω θεάτρω, μεχχοντος Ίτιδείξεσθαι, σαυτοΰ λογού?, καϊ ούδ' όπωστωύν έκπχα- 7εντός, νυν οίηθείην σε θορυβηθήσεσθαι ενεκα ημών οχίγων ανθρώπων. I should be forgetful, Agathon, said Socrates, of the courage and spirit which you showed when your compositions were about to be exhibited, when you came upon the όκρίβαs with the actors and faced the whole audience 16 altogether undismayed, if I thought you would on the present occasion be disturbed by a small company of friends. The scholiast on this passage, and Hesychius s. v. οκρίβας, give this explanation: οκρίβας ' το ΧογεΙον, e</>' ου oi τραγωδοϊ ήγωνίζοντο τίνες δε κιχχίβας τρισκεχής, εφ' ου ΐσταντο oi ύποκρίταϊ καϊ τα εκ μετεώρου Χέγουσιν, and Timaeus, Lex. Plat., οκρίβας πήγμα το εν τω θεάτρω τιθεμενον, εφ' ου ΐσταντο oi τα δημοσία Χεγοντες. Evidently these writers had no clear idea of the word's meaning. Moreover, the appearance of the poet with the actors shows that here we have to do, not with the άγων, but with the προάγων, 11 and that was held, not in the theater, but in the odeum. 18 The passage, then, whatever its precise interpretation may be, is not relevant to the present discussion. In the present unsatisfactory state of our information regarding the προ άγων, therefore, we are scarcely warranted in drawing sweeping conclusions from Plato's reference to that ceremony. Aristotle uses the phrase επί (τής) σκηνής four times in the Poetics, viz.: (1) XIII, 6, p. 1453a; (2) XVII, 1, p. 1455a; (3) XXIY, 4, p. 1459&; and (4) XXIV, 8, p. 1460a; and Demosthenes uses it once (5) in Or., XIX, 337. I shall now consider these passages in turn. 1. XIII, 6, p α: δώ καϊ oi Εύριπί8τ) έγκαχούντες τουτ αυτο άμαρτάνουσιν, οτι τούτο δρα εν ταϊς τραγωδίαις καϊ ποχχαϊ αυτοί) είς δυστυχίαν τεχευτώσίν. τούτο γάρ εστίν ώσπερ εϊρηταί ορθόν, σημείον δε μέγιστον ' έπϊ yap τών σκηνών καϊ τών αγώνων 15 Cf. Α. MOLLEE, BUhnenalt., p. 365, notes 3,4, who gives " Other interpretations were reviewed and rejected by a list of previous authorities; also WIESELEE, loc. cit., RHODE, Rhein. Mus., Vol. XXXVIII (1883), pp. 253 ff. It is p. 206, note 20; OEHMICHEN, Woch. f. Mass. Phil., Vol. IX likely, too, that under the term ϋποκριταί all of Agathon's (1892), p. 1142; NAVARRE, op. cit., p. 106, note 2; and MULLEE, performers were included, chorus as well as actors. Cf. the Philologus, Supplementband VII, p. 55. story told in the Vita Euripidis of Sophocles and his chorus ie Till the close of the fifth century the almost exclusive at the *P *y*»' after the news of Euripides's death, meaning of θέα,τρον was " audience;" cf. WILAMOWITZ-MOL- 18 Cf. schol. Aeschines Ctesiphon. 67. LENDORFF, Hermes, XXI (1886), pp. 602 f.

8 8 MEANING OF evi T?}<? σκηνής IN WRITERS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY 26 τραγικώταται al τοιαύται φαίνονται, αν κατορθωθώσιν, καϊ ό Ευριπίδης et και τα αλλα μη ευ οικονομεί άχλά τραγικώτατός γε των ποιητών φαίνεται. Aristotle lias been saying that a well-constructed plot sliould be simple, and should imitate actions which excite pity and fear the pity that is aroused by unmerited misfortune, the fear that is stirred by the misfortune of a man like ourselves. The reversal of fortune should, therefore, be from good to bad. The practice of the stage, he adds, bears out our view (σημείον δε καϊ το γιγνόμενον), for tragedies nowadays are founded on the story of a few heroes whose fortunes illustrate this principle. The earlier poets had treated any legend, whatever the nature of the issue. A perfect tragedy, however, should be so constructed. He then adds: Hence they commit the same error [i. β., as the earlier poets] who censure Euripides just because he follows this principle in his plays, many of which end unhappily. It is, as we have said, the right ending. The best proof is that on the stage and in dramatic competitions such plays, if they are well represented, are the most tragic in effect; and Euripides, faulty as he is in the general management of his subject, yet is felt to be the most tragic of the poets. 19 In this chapter Aristotle finds confirmation of his statement of the principles of tragic composition in the practice of successful poets and in the effect that tragedies constructed according to his rules actually have upon the audiences. He appeals twice to the "practice of the stage," as Butcher renders τό γιγνόμενον. The contrast is between plays which are technically perfect and those which, in spite of technical faults, do actually succeed in exciting the emotions of pity and fear. The test is the actual performance. There is no suggestion involving the work of the actors as opposed to that of the chorus. Assuming that they are well put on (αν κατορθωθωσιν), the plays of Euripides, with all their faults, are most effective when actually produced (evt των σκηνών καϊ των αγώνων). The combination of σκηνών with αγώνων shows that σκηνή has here the common meaning of "performance." The phrase may be regarded as an example of liendiadys, and means nothing more or less than "at scenic contests." This is precisely the meaning of the modern phrase employed by Butcher, "on the stage and in dramatic competition"; only we must not allow the modern connotation of "stage" as the actors' platform to affect our interpretation of the Greek phrase, in which the work of the chorus is necessarily included. This point will be made clearer in the discussion of the other passages. In post-classical Greek another phrase is sometimes used in the same meaning έπϊ θεάτρου, e. g., schol. Vesp. 1291: εψηφίσατο 6 KXeW μηκ,ετι δείν κωμωδίας έπϊ θεάτρων 20 εισάγεσθαι. " Cleon had a bill passed that no more comedies should be exhibited at spectacles." To express this thought Aristotle would probably have said επϊ τήν σκηνήν εισάγεσθαι. 2. XVII, 1, ρ. 1455α: δει δε τους μύθους συνιστάναι καϊ τη Χεξει συναπεργάζεσθαι οτι μάλιστα προ ομμάτων τιθεμενον οϋτω yap αν εναργέστατα [δ'] ορών ώσπερ παρ' αύτοΐς γιγνόμενος τοις πραττομενοις εύρίσκοι το πρέπον καϊ ήκιστα αν Χανθάνοι [τό] τα ύπεναντία. ση μείον δε τούτου ο επετιματο Κ αρκίνω 6 γαρ 'Αμφιάραος εξ ιερού ανήει, 19In translating the Poetics I have used Butcher's version (2d ed.) with slight adaptations. 20V, «πϊ θ(άτρων R, enl' ιαθρ; the others, in\ τω 0«άτρω,

9 ROY C. FLICKINGER 9 ο μη όρώντ αζυ^τον [θεατήν~^21 έχάνθανεν, evt δε της σκηνής εζέπεσεν Βυσχερανάντων τούτο των θεατών. In constructing the plot and working it out with the proper diction, the poet should place the scene, as far as possible, before his eyes. In this way, seeing everything with the utmost vividness, as if he were a spectator of the action, he will discover what is in keeping with it, and be most unlikely to overlook inconsistencies. The need of such a rule is shown by the fault found in Carcinus. Amphiaraus was on his way from the temple. This fact escaped the notice of the poet, who did not visualize the situation. On the stage, however, the piece failed, the audience being offended at the oversight. Since we have no knowledge of the plot of the play, the hint given by Aristotle is necessarily obscure. But the inconsistency that Carcinus overlooked is, nevertheless, indicated with sufficient clearness. The poet had not, in constructing his plot, carefully worked out the language of his characters {rrj Χεξει συναπεργάζεσθαι. Butcher's "diction" is faulty) so that it should harmonize with their actions. Here Amphiaraus was on his way back from the temple, whither he had previously departed, but on liis reappearance speaks of having come from somewhere else. 22 The contrast here is similar to that in the passage previously discussed between the crucial test of the performance before spectators and the intrinsic merits of a play. There the practical success of Euripides is set over against defects in technique; here the practical failure of Carcinus against the (implied) merits of his drama. When writing the play the poet, by failing to visualize his plot, overlooked an inconsistency; but when the play was performed (β7τΐ τής σκηνής), it failed because of this small defect. 23 To introduce into the interpretation of this passage a reference to a stage for actors, as contrasted with the orchestra for the chorus, is to violate common sense and reason. Here also σκηνη stands for the theater itself; επί τής σκηνής is equivalent to the later επί του θεάτρου, and means, by metonomy, " at the performance." An excellent parallel is found in Plutarch, Moralia, p. 845α: (Δημοσθένης) εκπεσών 8e ποτ επί τής εκκλησίας. 3. XXIV, 3, 4, ρ : δίαφερει δε κατά τε τής συστάσεως το μήκος ή εποποιία 2ΐ The emendation of Gomperz for όρώντα τον θεατήν of Η. DUNTZEE, Rettung der Arist. Poetik, p. 177, saw the the manuscripts. A careful examination of the context point correctly, though vaguely, but found an impossible shows that the poet, not the spectator, was blamed for contrast between ίξ iepov and ίπί σκηνης. TEICHMCLLEE, overlooking the inconsistency. The phrase ορών... Arist. Forschungen, Vol. I, 104 f., read θεατήν, and thought ηκιστα λανθάνοι. applies to him, and its echo, μη όρώντα... the spectators were offended because they did not see the ΐλάνθανεν, naturally does the same. Dacier saw the proper return of Amphiaraus from the temple actually represented application, and read ποιητήν for θ^ατήν, which Susemihl before their eyes instead of being merely described. But adopted. Butcher brackets τον θ^ατήν, but the passage then that would not have involved a ύη-ίναντίον. Gomperz in lacks the definite reference to Carcinus that is required. Aristoteles Poetik (1897), p. Ill, suggests that the appear- Vahlen's conjecture, όρώντ' άν, though perhaps easiest to ex- ance in another role of the actor who played Amphiaraus's plain palseographically, breaks down at the same point. part while he was supposed to be absent offended the Gomperz's emendation gives the evident meaning of the audience. But this occurred in nearly every play, passage, and from it the present reading could easily have 23 Euripides, on the contrary, is commended for his care been derived by some scribe's writing τον θνχτήν between the i n suc h details, viz., for telling the audience whence a charlines as a comment on αύτόν, which he misunderstood. acter COmes and whither he is going. The opening line of 22This is better than to assign the error to faulty stage the Troades is a case in point: Ή*ω λιπών Αιγαίον άλ^υρον management, e. g., that Amphiaraus made his exit through βάθος, where the scholiast remarks: oaos inl του θίάτρου 6 one of the parodoi, and then on his return entered from Ευριπίδης. "Euripides was wholly intent upon, i. e., was the building represented by the proscenium. Susemihl, ever thoughtful of, his audience." Cf. PLUTARCH, Moralia, pp. 254, 1626 (2d ed.), frankly confessed ignorance of the p. 3426: (Alexander, entertaining the Persian ambassadors), fault involved ; WELCKER, Die griechischen TragOdien, Vol. ούδβν ήρώτα παιδικόν άλλ' ολο? «ν τοΐϊ κυρ«υτάτοι* >5ν της III, ρ. 1065, brought nothing of value to the discussion. ήγ«μονιας; and HOBACE, Sat., I., 9, 2: totus in illit. 19

10 10 MEANING OF εττϊ τής σκηνής IN WRITERS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY και το μετρον. του μεν ου ν μήκους ορος Ικανός ό είρημένος δύνασθαι γαρ δει συνοράσθαι την αρχήν καϊ το τε\ος. ε'ίη δ' αν τούτο, εί των μεν αρχαίων έλάττους αϊ συστάσεις εΐεν, προς 8ε το πχήθος τραγωδιών των εις μίαν άκρόασιν τιθεμενων παρήκοιεν. εχει δε προς το επεκτείνεσθαι το μέγεθος 7τολυ τι ή εποποιία 'ίδιον δια το εν μεν ττ) τραγωδία μή ένδέ-χεσθαι άμα πραττόμενα ποχλα μέρη μιμεισθαι άλλα το επί τής σκηνής καϊ των υποκριτών μέρος μόνον, εν δε ΤΎ] εποποιία δια το διήγησιν είναι εστί ποχλα μέρη άμα ποιείν περαινόμενα. Epic poetry differs from tragedy in the scale on which it is constructed, and in its metre. As regards scale or length, we have already laid down an adequate limit: the beginning and the end must be capable of being brought within a single view. This condition will be satisfied by poems on a smaller scale than the old epics, and answering in length to the group of tragedies presented at a single sitting. Epic poetry has, however, a special capacity for enlarging its dimensions, and we can see the reason. In tragedy we cannot imitate several actions carried on at one and the same time; we must confine ourselves to the action on the stage and the part taken by the players. But in epic poetry, owing to the narrative form, many events simultaneously transacted can be presented. A tragic plot is restricted as to time and place, i. e., it cannot represent more than one event at a time. Now to represent simultaneous events we need several groups of characters and as many places for their action. But tragedy can present but one group of characters at a time acting in but one place, viz., that represented in the scenery of the theater. Whenever in a play the scene of action has once been localized, there it must remain, and no performers can be introduced inconsistent with this location. Now the chief cause of this restriction was the chorus. Its constant presence effectually prevented the tragic poet from shifting the scene of action, as the epic poet could readily do in his narrative, and as the modern dramatic poet, freed from this serious limitation, can do without violating the laws of his art. The fifthcentury dramatists keenly felt the restraint put upon them and tried to gain a larger freedom. JEschylus in the Eumenides, Sophocles in the Ajax, Euripides in the Alcestis, Aristophanes in the Thesmophoriazusae, and the unknown author of the Rhesus succeeded in removing the chorus for a moment while the scene was changed; but they could not introduce a new set of characters in the new scene, because the traditions of the drama imposed upon the poet a single chorus for each piece. The utmost that the poets did in this direction was done in the early period of tragedy, when chorus and actors changed their characters between the longer episodes an arrangement from which developed the group of four plays forming a tetralogy. Aristotle, of course, did not dream of a tragedy without a chorus, and in formulating the laws which govern this branch of the imitative art, accepting the chorus as an essential part of tragedy, simply defined the conditions which arise from its presence. It is evident, therefore, that under the term oi υποκριταί he had in mind all of the performers concerned in representing the action which the poet brings before our eyes, the chorus as well as the actors. 24 The restriction as to the performers which the 24 Cf. Note 17 above, and Triclinins's scholium to the Jahr.f. class. Phil., Vol. VII (1875), p. 432: ιτ(ντΐκα.ί5(κα eitriv Agamemnon, quoted by WECKLEIN," Studien zu Euripides," ΟΊ τοΰ τραγικοί) χοροϋ ύποκριταί. 20

11 ROY C. FLICKINGER 11 tragic poet can introduce into a given plot is, however, only an incident of the limitation imposed by the constant presence of the chorus as to the place of action. To this consideration, therefore, Aristotle properly gives the precedence δει μιμεϊσθαι τό evi τής σκηνής μέρος. Out of the many actions going on at the same time which the epic poet may draw into his narrative, the tragic poet must select that one which takes place at the scene of action determined upon at the outset. To make clearer the necessity of the poet's confining himself to this one scene, Aristotle adds the second item καϊ το των υποκριτών μέρος. We might properly render the sentence under consideration thus: '' But he must confine himself to that portion of the story that is defined by the scene of action chosen and that falls to the performers appropriate to this scene." Έπϊ τής σκηνής here again might have been replaced by the later phrase έπϊ του θεάτρου, and, far from referring to the place where the actors stood, manifestly embraces all who are concerned in the dramatic representation. 4. XXIV, 8, p. 1460α: δβΐ μεν οΰν εν ταϊς τραγωδίαις ποιεΐν το θαυμαστόν, μάχχον δ' ενδέχεται εν τη εποποιία το axoyov, δι' δ συμβαίνει μάχιστα το θαυμαστόν, δια το μή όράν εις τον πράττοντα' έπεϊ τα περϊ την "Έικτορος δίωξιν έπϊ σκηνής οντα γεχοια αν φανείη, οι μεν εστώτες καϊ ου διώκοντες, ο δ' άνανεύων, εν δε τοις επεσιν Χανθάνει. The element of the wonderful is admitted in tragedy. The irrational, on which the wonderful depends for its chief effects, has wider scope in epic poetry, because there the person acting is not seen. Thus, the pursuit of Hector would be ludicrous if placed upon the stage the Greeks standing still and not joining in the pursuit and Achilles waving them back. But in the epic poem the absurdity passes unnoticed. Aristotle is evidently thinking of Iliad, XXII, 205 f.: Χαοΐσιν δ' ανένευε καρήατι δϊος ΆχιΧΧεύς, ούδ' έα Ιέμεναι έπϊ Γ 'Εκτορι πικρά βέχεμνα, and is trying to show why a scene that was excellent in an epic could not be dramatized. In Homer there are two groups of characters: (a) Achilles and Hector, and (6) the Greek army. Tliey are all υποκριταί ("performers") in the sense in which the author used that term in the preceding passage. In Aristotle's imaginary dramatization of this incident these groups represent the actors [ο δέ) and the chorus (ot μέν) respectively. In the epic account of the pursuit the episode seems natural, for the picture placed before our eyes is on an heroic scale, and we do not find ourselves offended by minor picturesque, if incongruous, details; but "on the stage," "auf der Biihne," "sur la sc&ne," i. e., in dramatic representation, it appears ridiculous. The contrast is once more perfectly plain, and if we should try to restrict the meaning of σκηνή to an elevated "stage," a place for actors alone, we should then have to explain how both actors and chorus are here included under that phrase. It is fortunate that so many fourth-century examples of the use of έπϊ τής σκηνής are preserved by so careful and accurate a writer as Aristotle, and in passages that yield satisfactory results upon analysis. The sole instance of its occurrence in 21

12 12 MEANING OF evi T?}<? σκηνής IN WRITERS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY Demosthenes is so colorless that any attempt at deriving from such a passage a satisfactory conception of the phrase's meaning would have been vain; yet, now that from other sources we have gained a suitable meaning, the usage there is found to accord with it. For the proper understanding of such passages, therefore, these Aristotelian examples are of inestimable worth. 5. Demosthenes, Or., XIX, 337: καίτοι καϊ περι τής φωνής ϊσως ειπείν ανάγκη, πάνυ γαρ μέγα καϊ επϊ ταύττ) φρονειν αυτόν ακούω, ώς καθυποκρινούμενον υμάς. εμοϊ δε δοκεΐτ' άτοπώτατον απάντων αν ποιήσαι, ει, οτε μεν τα θυέστου καϊ τών επϊ Τροία κακά ήγωνίζετο, εκεβάχχετ' αύτον καϊ έξεσυρίττετ' εκ τών θεάτρων καϊ μόνον ου κατεχεύεθ' οΰτως, ώστε τεχευτώντα του τριταγωνιστεΐν άποστήναι, επειδή δ' ουκ επϊ τής σκηνής αλλ' εν τοις κοινοϊς καϊ μεγίστοις τής πόχεως πράγμασι μύρι είργασται κακά, τηνικαύθ' ώ? καχον φθεγγομενω προσέχοιτε. And yet, perhaps, I must speak also about his voice, for I understand that he is very proud of that, too, presuming that he will overpower you by his acting. It appears to me, however, that it would be an act of extreme absurdity on your part, if, when he played the miseries of Thyestes and the heroes at Troy, you drove and hissed him from the theater and all but stoned him, so that he finally retired from playing his third-rate parts, yet now, when not merely in dramatic performances, but in public and most momentous affairs of the state, he has wrought endless miseries, you should pay attention to him as a fine speaker. Demosthenes is calling attention to the different scenes of ieschines's failures, which were not confined to his theatrical efforts but extended to his public career as well. Έττί τής σκηνής has no more definite application to his standing-place as an actor in the theater than εκ τών θεάτρων above, or than εν Αιονύσου in Or., V, 6, 7: πάχιν τοίνυν, ώ άνδρες Αθηναίοι, κατιδών ΝεοπτόΧεμον τον ύποκριτήν... κακά εργαζόμενον τά μέγιστα την πόχιν... παρεχθών εϊπον εις υμάς καϊ ούκέτι εν τούτοις αιτιάσομαι τους ύπερ ΝεοπτοΧέμου Χέγοντας άxx, αυτούς υμάς. εΐ γαρ εν Αιονύσου τραγωδούς εθεάσασθε, άχχά μή περϊ σωτηρίας καϊ κοινών πραγμάτων ήν ό λογο9, ουκ άν οΰτως οϋτ' εκείνου προς χάριν ούτ εμού προς άπεχθειαν ήκούσατε, or than εν θεάτρω in Theophrastus, Charact., XI: ό βδεχυρος τοιούτος οιος.... εν θεάτρω κροτείν, οταν οι άχχοι παύωνται καϊ συρίττειν ους ήδεως θεωρούσιν οι Χοιποί. Though εν Αιονύσου and εν θεάτρω may include both performers and spectators, while επι τής σκηνής is restricted to the former, none involves specific reference to any particular part of the theater. These are the only examples of the phrase in the extant literature of the fourth century. I add a few later instances which illustrate the same usage: schol. Tliesm., 101: μονωδει ο Άγάθων ως προς χορόν, ού-χ ως επι σκηνής, 25 άλλ' ώ? ποιήματα συντιθείς. δώ καϊ χορικά Χεγει μέχη αύτος προς αυτόν, ως χορικά δε. " Agathon sings a solo as though he were addressing a chorus, not as if he were in the theater, but as composing verses [at home]. Accordingly, he says also the choral parts all to himself, though still as choral parts." Lucian, Apol., 5: o'i [t. e., tragic actors] επϊ μεν τής σκηνής 'Αγαμέμνων έκαστος ή Κ ρέων ή αύτος 'ΙΆρακΧής είσιν,εξω δε Πώλο? ή 'Αριστόδημος.... γίγνονται. "At dramatic performances in the theater each of the tragic actors 25 vtto σκ-ηνής, the manuscripts. 26

13 ROY C. FLICKINGER 13 is Agamemnon or Creon or Heracles himself, but outside of the theater he is simply himself." Arg. Eurip. Orestes: το δράμα των επι σκηνής εύδοκιμούντων, χείριστον τοις ήθεσι. The "staging" of a Greek play obviously included the place of the chorus as well as that of the actors. Plutarch, Moralia, p. 7856: ΦιΧήμωνα δε τον κωμικον καϊ "ΑΧεξιν 7Γ ι τής σκηνής αγωνιζόμενους καϊ στέφανου μένους ό θάνατος κατέχαβε. "Death seized Philemon and Alexis while they strove successfully in the theater." Of course, in this instance there is no mention of actors at all, but of poets who were contestants in the theater with their plays. Libanius, Praefat. ad Demostli2: Ιστόρηται γάρ τινα ΒάταΧον 'Έιφέσιον αύχητήν γενέσθαι, ος πρώτος υιτοδήμασι γυναικείοις επί τής σκηνής εχρήσατο. "Batalus [as his effeminacy caused him to be nicknamed, though his name was really Tigranes; cf. schol. JEschines, I, 126], the Ephesian flute player, was the first to wear women's sandals at a performance in the theater." In the Greek theater flute players performed in the orchestra. 26 Though Libanius may have had in mind the custom of the Roman theater, more probably he was simply quoting the words of a much earlier writer. Plutarch, Moralia, p. 337e: αγωνιστή γαρ ηγεμονίας υποκριτήν enτεισήγαγε, μάχχον δε ώς επι σκηνής το διάδημα κωφον διεξήχθε τής οικουμένης, " For lie brought in against his opponent one to play the role of power, but as in a play a 'mute' took the part of ruler of the world." Ibid., p. 709cZ: άχχά δει σκοπειν πρώτον τις ό καχών έστιν. εί μεν γαρ ου σφόδρα συνήθης, άλλ' ή τών πχουσίων τις τ) σατραπικών, ώς επί σκηνής δορυφορήματος Χαμπρου δεόμενος ή πάνυ χαρίζεσθαι τή κχήσει πεπεισμένος και τιμάν, επάγεται, παραιτητέος ευθύς. " But it is necessary in the first place to see who gives the invitation. For if it is no one very intimate, but someone of either wealth or power one who needs, as at a dramatic performance, a splendid suite, or is convinced that he is bestowing favor or honor by the invitation one must ask at once to be excused." Ibid., p. 791 e: ό δ' ώσπερ επι σκηνής δορυφόρημα κωφον ήν όνομα βασιχέως. "As in a play, Aridaeus was a 'mute' escort of power, a nominal king." Now από with the genitive is the counterpart of επί with the genitive. Therefore, if evi means "on top of," άπό means "from on top of;" but if επί conveys no implication of elevation and means simply "at," then άπό denotes merely motion, or derivation, from. 27 Now in the phrase under discussion, επί τής σκηνής, we have found that σκηνή, which in its earlier usage meant a specific part of the theater structure, was used by metonomy for the whole performance-place. Meaning originally the booth used by the performers in dramatic exhibitions, then the structure that served not only as a dressing-room, but also as the scenic background (c/. the term σκηνογραφία, which occurs first in Aristotle), the enlarged, tropical meaning was a perfectly natural development when the "performance-place" to be designated was the place for dramatic exhibition. For any other kind of exhibition in the theater, for example the dithyramb, in which the σκηνή structure had no part, επι τής σκηνής would scarcely have been an appropriate designation of the place of the performance, but rather 26 Cf. Plirynichus, RUTHERFOED, New Phrynichus, p σκηνή, is found in THEOCRITUS, XV, 16: φϋκος irro σκανάς ay 27 An illustration, which happens to involve the word ράσδων. The φΰκος was to be had tn-i σκανας, " at the shop»." 23

14 14 MEANING OF εττϊ τής σκηνής IN WRITERS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY επί τής θυμέλης (ί. β., ορχήστρας). Consequently οi επ\ τής σκηνής, or the later term, σκηνίται, embraced all of the participants in a dramatic representation ύττοκριταί, χορός, ποιητής, χορηγός, and διδάσκαλος as did τραγωδοί at an earlier period. Now if it were desired to distinguish between the two kinds of dramatic performers, since οί επί (or, from a different point of view, από) τής θυμέλης was already used of the ditliyrambic chorus and could not possibly be applied to the actors, that term would naturally be used to designate the dramatic chorus as well, and οί επί (από) τής σκηνής would be used in the restricted sense for the actors alone. It was thus, in my opinion, that the distinction arose between the two phrases, rather than because the σκηνή was the place par excellence for the actors, as is generally assumed on the basis of the dictum of Pollux. One would naturally expect that ο I eirl τής σκηνής and οί άπό τής σκηνής would assume the meaning "actors" contemporaneously, though, as a matter of fact, Aristotle uses only the latter in the new sense and retains the old meaning of the former. It is fortunate that this so happened, otherwise it would be impossible to trace the phrase's history with any degree of certainty. Probably the fact that the σκηνή was thought of as the home of the actors, as Reisch has pointed out, accounts for the use of από τής σκηνής in the new meaning before επϊ τής σκηνής. In the development of their meanings, and the differences between them at any particular time, these phrases are precisely paralleled by οί σκηνικοί and οί θυμελικοί. In other words, σκηνικός was first used to distinguish dramatic from other performers in the theater, and later, following the course of development above indicated for οί επϊ τής σκηνής, came to be applied to actors alone. Of course, when a raised "stage" was introduced, such an application of these expressions was doubly appropriate, 28 because the local distinction was emphasized not, however, because επί implies elevation. We are now in a position to estimate properly the phrase άπό τής σκηνής in Aristotle. In two passages, which may be un-aristotelian, από (τής) σκηνής is used of the lyrical utterances of actors. Poetics, XII, 1, 14526: κοινά μεν απάντων ταύτα, 'ίδια δε τά άπό τής σκηνής και κόμμοι. "These [/. e. prologue, episode, exodos, and choric song] are common to all plays, peculiar to some are the κόμμοι and the songs of the scenic performers." Ibid., XII, 2: κόμμος δε θρήνος κοινος χορού καϊ ζτώνy άπό σκηνής. "A kommos is a dirge by both the chorus and the scenic performers." Cf. also Aristotle's Problem., XV, 9186: to Be αύτο αίτιον καϊ διότι τά μεν άπό τής σκηνής ουκ αντίστροφα, τά δε τού χορού αντίστροφα, ibid., XXX, 920α: δια τί ούδε ύποδωριστϊ ούδε ύποφρυγιστϊ ουκ εστίν εν τραγωδία χορικόν;... άλλ' άπό σκηνής, μιμητική γάρ, ibid., XLVIII, 9226: ταύτα δε άμφω χορω μεν ανάρμοστα, τοις δε άπό σκηνής οίκειότερα' εκείνοι μεν <yap ηρώων μιμηταί. The use of χορός, χορικόν, etc., in these passages gives to the phrase άπό (τ?}?) σκηνής the restricted meaning desired. As soon as the "choral" element is taken out, "scenic" must refer to the actors alone, although, strictly speaking, both chorus and actors were included in 28 Cf. the recent controversy arising from FREI'sdisser- Bethe and Dfirpfeld in Hermes, Vol. XXXVI (1901), pp. 597 ff., tation, De Certaminibus Thymelicis, Basel, 1900 between and ibid., Vol. XXXVII (1902), pp. 249 ff. and

15 ROY C. FLICKINGER 15 tlie term "scenic." Cf. Demosthenes, XVIII, 180: (βούλει) σε δε μηδ' ήρω τον τυχόντα άχλά τούτων τινά των αϊτο τής σκηνής, Κρεσφόντην ή Κ ρέοντα η ον εν ΚοΧΧυτω ποτε Οίνάμαον κακώς ύποκρινόμενος επέτριψας. "Do you want me to count you as no ordinary hero, but as one of these 'scenic' performers, Cresphontes or Creon or CEnomaus, whom once upon a time, at Collytus, you 'murdered' with your bad acting?" This fling was directed at ieschines, whose ill luck as an actor of tragic roles was notorious. Finally, both those who insist that επι with the genitive invariably "implies elevation," and their opponents who claim that it means "before," are equally led astray by the exigencies of the argument. Reiscli, in the statement quoted above: " Dass das Vorwort επι (mit Genetiv, Dativ und Accusativ) nicht nur zur Bezeiclinung von Hohenunterschieden, sondern auch zur Bezeichnung der Naclibarschaft zweier auf gleichem Boden beiindlicher Dinge verwendet wird, dftrfte wolil bekannt genug sein," proposes to cut the Gordian knot of the most perplexing word in the language in a manner that will satisfy but few. Only a small proportion of the examples that he cites are of any value to the present discussion. Let us consider the following passages: In two instances σκηνή has its untechnical meaning of "tent": Plutarch, Brutus, 45: πληγαΐς κοχασθέντας επι σκηνής [before, or at, the commander's quarters] γυμνούς άποδοθήναι τοις στρατηγοΐς τών πολεμίων, and Arg. Soph. Ajax: καταλαμβάνει Αθηνά'Οδυσσέα επί τής σκηνής διοπτεύοντα τίποτε άρα πράττει. In three cases επί is used in connection with the scenic background. Arg. Sopli. Antigone: υπόκειται δε τα πράγματα επι τών Κρέοντος βασιλείων-, schol. Soph. Track. 1275: ev' οίκων-, and Arg. Aristoph. Equites: έοικε [sc. Δημοσθένης] ω<? επι οικίας δεσποτικής ποιεϊσθαι τον λόγον. And in still two other instances it is used in connection with the spectators: schol. Eurip. Troad., 1: όλος επι του θεάτρου 6 Έ,ύριπίδης, and schol. Eurip. Hippol., 524: τά δε άλλα, α φρονώ, αρκέσει τοις ένδον διηγήσασθαι φίλοις, όποιά εστι, καϊ μη επι πάντων καϊ έπϊ του θεάτρου ταύτα εκφέρειν. "The nature of my other plans it will suffice to relate to my friends within, and not to disclose them before the whole audience." In dealing with this matter Professor Gildersleeve shrewdly observes: In the vast majority of instances im with the genitive denotes characteristic superposition and it may still denote superposition in such standing expressions as im ταγούς, in οικήματος.... Any form of superposition will answer the conditions a rest in front, a step in the doorway Dr. Forman... adduces an interesting example, Demosthenes, LVIII., 40: em των δικαστηρίων και τον βήματος, in which επι'retains enough literalness for the second member. But, whatever the local exigencies may be, the phraseological, the adjectival character of the combination is unmistakable, οί evi σκηνής as a technical term is simply οί σκηνΐται, the "hutmen." The rarity of έπί with the genitive of mere proximity in the best period, the large possibilities of the " upon" element even then all this is abundantly shown in Dr. Forman's dissertation. That άπό της σκηνής is more common than οί im σκηνής, a fact on which Reisch lays great stress, is a very simple matter. 'Από σκηνής is im σκηνής from a different point of view Sporadic examples in which im with the genitive seems to mean " before " do not strengthen the σκηνή argument, which may quietly repose on the phraseological use of im. " On the playhouse 25

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