ω ω ω ω ω ω+2 ω ω+2 + ω ω ω ω+2 + ω ω+1 ω ω+2 2 ω ω ω ω ω ω ω ω+1 ω ω2 ω ω2 + ω ω ω2 + ω ω ω ω2 + ω ω+1 ω ω2 + ω ω+1 + ω ω ω ω2 + ω
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- Κρίος Ματθαίος Ανδρεάδης
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1 ω ω + 1 ω + 2 ω + 3 ω + 4 ω2 ω2 + 1 ω2 + 2 ω2 + 3 ω3 ω3 + 1 ω3 + 2 ω4 ω4 + 1 ω5 ω 2 ω ω ω 2 + ω ω 2 + ω + 1 ω 2 + ω2 ω 2 2 ω ω ω ω 2 3 ω 3 ω ω 3 + ω ω 3 + ω 2 ω 3 2 ω 4 ω ω ω ω + 1 ω ω + 2 ω ω + 3 ω ω + ω ω ω + ω + 1 ω ω + ω2 ω ω + ω 2 ω ω + ω 2 + ω ω ω + ω 2 2 ω ω 2 ω ω ω ω ω ω 2 + ω ω ω 2 + ω 2 ω ω 3 ω ω ω ω 4 ω ω+1 ω ω ω ω+1 + ω ω ω+1 + ω ω ω ω+1 + ω ω 2 ω ω+1 2 1
2 ω ω ω ω ω ω+2 ω ω+2 + ω ω ω ω+2 + ω ω+1 ω ω+2 2 ω ω ω ω ω ω ω ω+1 ω ω2 ω ω2 + ω ω ω2 + ω ω ω ω2 + ω ω+1 ω ω2 + ω ω+1 + ω ω ω ω2 + ω ω+1 2 ω ω2 + ω ω+2 ω ω2 2 ω ω2+1 ω ω3 ω ω2 ω ω2 + 1 ω ω2 + 2 ω ω2 + ω ω ω2 + ω ω ω ω2 + ω ω+1 ω ω2 + ω ω2 ω ω2 2 ω ω ω ω2 3 ω ω2 +1 ω ω ω ω2 +ω ω ω2 2 ω ω3 ω ω3 + 1 ω ω3 2 ω ω4 ω ωω ω ωω + 1 ω ωω + 2 ω ωω + ω ω ωω + ω ω ω ωω 2 ω ωω ω ωω 3 ω ωω +1 ω ωω +1 2 ω ωω +ω ω ωω 2 ω ωω 3 ω ωω+1 2
3 ω ωω ω ωω+1 2 ω ωω+2 ω ωω2 ω ωω2 + 1 ω ωω2 2 ω ωω2 +1 ω ωω ω ωω2 +ω ω ωω2 2 ω ωω2+1 ω ωω3 ω ωω2 ω ωω2 +1 ω ωωω ω ωωω + 1 ω ωωω 2 ω ωωω +1 ω ωωω +ω ω ωωω 2 ω ωωω +1 ω ωωω +ω ω ωωω 2 ω ωωω+1 ω ωωω2 ω ωωω2 ω ωωωω = φ 1 (0) = ψ(0) ω + ω ω2 + ω3 + ω 2 + ω ω ω + ω ωω + ω ωωω ω 2 + ω ω 3 ω = ω +1 (ω + 1) = ω +1 + ω2 = ω +1 2 ω ω = ω +ω 3
4 2 = ω ω ω ω = ω = ω 3 ω = ω ω +1 ω + ω 2 ω ω = ω ω ω+1 = ω ω +1 + ω+1 + ω ω+1 2 ω+1 ω = ω ω ω+2 = ω ω ω2 = ω ω +1 2 ω 2 = ω ω +2 ω ω = ω ω +ω ω ω +1 = ω ω +ω + ω ω2 = ω ω +ω 2 ω ω+1 = ω ω +ω+1 ω ω2 = ω ω +ω2 ω ω2 = ω ω +ω2 ω ωω = ω ω +ωω = ω ω 2 2 = ω ω 3 ω = ω ω ω +1 = ω ωω 2 ω = ω ω ωω +1 = ω ω ωω 2 ε 1 = φ 1 (1) = ψ(1) 4
5 ε ε ε 1 + ω ε 1 + ε ε 1 + ω ε ε 1 2 ε ε 1 ω = ω ε 1+1 ε 1 = ω ε 1+ ε 1 2 = ω ε 12 ε 1 ω = ω ωε 1 +1 ε 1 ω ω = ω ωε 1 +ω ε 1 = ω ωε 1 + ε 1 ω = ω ω ε 1 +ω +1 ε 1 = ω ωε 1 +ω 2 ε 1 ε 1 = ω ωε 1 2 ε 1 ε 1 ω = ω ω ωε 1 +1 ε 1 ε 1 = ω ωωε 1 + ε 1 ε 1 ε 1 = ω ωωε 1 2 ε 2 = φ 1 (2) = ψ(2) ε ε 3 = φ 1 (3) = ψ(3) ε ω = φ 1 (ω) = ψ(ω) ε ω + 1 ε ω + ω ε ω + ε ω + ε 1 5
6 ε ω2 ε ω 2 ε ω = φ 1 (ω) φ 1(0) ε ω ε 1 = φ 1 (ω) φ 1(1) ε ω ε ω = φ 1 (ω) φ 1(ω) ε ω ε ω εω = φ 1 (ω) φ 1(ω) φ 1 (ω) ε ω+1 = φ 1 (ω + 1) = ψ(ω + 1) ε ω2 = φ 1 (ω2) = ψ(ω2) ε ω 2 = φ 1 (ω 2 ) = ψ(ω 2 ) ε ω ω = φ 1 (ω ω ) = ψ(ω ω ) ε ε0 = φ 1 (φ 1 (0)) = ψ(ψ(0)) ε ε0 2 = φ 1 (φ 1 (0) 2) = ψ(ψ(0) 2) ε ε0 = φ 1 (φ 1 (0) φ 1(0) ) = ψ(ψ(0) ψ(0) ) ε ε1 = φ 1 (φ 1 (1)) = ψ(ψ(1)) ε εε0 = φ 1 (φ 1 (φ 1 (0))) = ψ(ψ(ψ(0))) φ 2 (0) = ψ(ω) φ 2 (0) + 1 = ψ(ω) + 1 φ 2 (0) + 2 = ψ(ω) + 2 φ 2 (0) + ω = ψ(ω) + ω φ 2 (0) 2 = ψ(ω) 2 φ 2 (0) ω = ψ(ω) ω φ 2 (0) ω = ψ(ω) ω φ 2 (0) φ 2(0) = ψ(ω) ψ(ω) φ 1 (φ 2 (0) + 1) = ψ(ω + 1) φ 1 (φ 2 (0) + 2) = ψ(ω + 2) φ 1 (φ 2 (0) + ω) = ψ(ω + ω) φ 1 (φ 2 (0) 2) = ψ(ω + ψ(ω)) φ 1 (φ 1 (φ 2 (0) + 1)) = ψ(ω + ψ(ω + 1)) φ 2 (1) = ψ(ω2) 6
7 φ 2 (1) + 1 = ψ(ω2) + 1 φ 2 (1) 2 = ψ(ω2) 2 φ 2 (1) φ 2(1) = ψ(ω2) ψ(ω2) φ 1 (φ 2 (1) + 1) = ψ(ω2 + 1) φ 1 (φ 1 (φ 2 (1) + 1)) = ψ(ω2 + ψ(ω2 + 1)) φ 2 (2) = ψ(ω3) φ 2 (ω) = ψ(ωω) φ 2 ( ) = φ 2 (φ 1 (0)) = ψ(ωψ(0)) φ 2 (ε 1 ) = φ 2 (φ 1 (1)) = ψ(ωψ(1)) φ 2 (φ 1 (φ 1 (0))) = ψ(ωψ(ψ(0))) φ 2 (φ 2 (0)) = ψ(ωψ(ω)) φ 1 (φ 2 (φ 2 (0)) + 1) = ψ(ωψ(ω) + 1) φ 2 (φ 1 (φ 2 (0) + 1)) = ψ(ωψ(ω + 1)) φ 2 (φ 2 (1)) = ψ(ωψ(ω2)) φ 2 (φ 2 (φ 2 (0))) = ψ(ωψ(ωψ(ω))) φ 3 (0) = ψ(ω 2 ) φ 3 (0) + 1 = ψ(ω 2 ) + 1 φ 3 (0) 2 = ψ(ω 2 ) 2 φ 3 (0) φ 3(0) = ψ(ω 2 ) ψ(ω2 ) φ 1 (φ 3 (0) + 1) = ψ(ω 2 + 1) φ 1 (φ 1 (φ 3 (0) + 1)) = ψ(ω 2 + ψ(ω 2 + 1)) φ 2 (φ 3 (0) + 1) = ψ(ω 2 + Ω) φ 1 (φ 2 (φ 3 (0) + 1) + 1) = ψ(ω 2 + Ω + 1) 7
8 φ 2 (φ 2 (φ 3 (0) + 1)) = ψ(ω 2 + Ωψ(Ω 2 )) φ 3 (1) = ψ(ω 2 2) φ 3 (φ 3 (0)) = ψ(ω 2 ψ(ω 2 )) φ 4 (0) = ψ(ω 3 ) φ ω(0) = ψ(ω ω ) φ ω(0) + 1 = ψ(ω ω ) + 1 φ 1 (φ ω(0) + 1) = ψ(ω ω + 1) φ 2 (φ ω(0) + 1) = ψ(ω ω + Ω) φ 3 (φ ω(0) + 1) = ψ(ω ω + Ω 2 ) φ ω(1) = ψ(ω ω 2) φ ω(ω) = ψ(ω ω ω) φ ω(φ ω(0)) = ψ(ω ω ψ(ω ω )) φ ω+1 (0) = ψ(ω ω+1 ) φ ω2 (0) = ψ(ω ω2 ) φ ω(φ ω2 (0) + 1) = ψ(ω ω2 + Ω ω ) φ ω+1 (φ ω2 (0) + 1) = ψ(ω ω2 + Ω ω+1 ) φ ω2 (1) = ψ(ω ω2 2) φ ω ω (0) = ψ(ω ωω ) φ ε0 (0) = φ φ1 (0)(0) = ψ(ω ψ(0) ) φ ε0 (1) = φ φ1 (0)(1) = ψ(ω ψ(0) 2) φ ε0 ( ) = φ φ1 (0)(φ 1 (0)) = ψ(ω ψ(0) ψ(0)) φ φ1 (0)(φ φ1 (0)(0)) = ψ(ω ψ(0) ψ(ω ψ(0) )) φ ε0 +1(0) = φ φ1 (0)+1(0) = ψ(ω ψ(0)+1 ) φ ε1 (0) = φ φ1 (1)(0) = ψ(ω ψ(1) ) φ εε0 (0) = φ φ1 (φ 1 (0))(0) = ψ(ω ψ(ψ(0)) ) φ φ2 (0)(0) = ψ(ω ψ(ω) ) φ φφ1 (0) (0) (0) = ψ(ω ψ(ωψ(0)) ) Γ 0 = φ(1, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω ) 8
9 Γ Γ Γ 0 + ω Γ 0 2 Γ 0 2 Γ 0 ω Γ 0 Γ 0 ε Γ0 +1 = φ(1, φ(1, 0, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ω + 1) φ(φ 1 (0), φ(1, 0, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(0) ) φ(φ φ1 (0)(0), φ(1, 0, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(ωψ(0)) ) φ(φ(1, 0, 0), 1) = ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(ωω) ) φ(1, φ(φ(1, 0, 0), 1) + 1) = ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(ωω) + 1) φ(φ 1 (0), φ(φ(1, 0, 0), 1) + 1) = ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(ωω) + Ω ψ(0) ) φ(φ φ1 (0)(0), φ(φ(1, 0, 0), 1) + 1) = ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(ωω) + Ω ψ(ωψ(0)) ) φ(φ(1, 0, 0), 2) = ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(ωω) 2) φ(φ(1, 0, 0), φ 1 (0)) = ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(ωω) ψ(0)) φ(φ(1, 0, 0), φ(1, 0, 0)) = ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(ωω) ψ(ω Ω )) φ(φ(1, 0, 0), φ(φ(1, 0, 0), φ(1, 0, 0))) = ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(ωω) ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(ωω) ψ(ω Ω ))) φ(φ(1, 0, 0) + 1, 0) = ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(ωω )+1 ) 9
10 φ(φ(φ(1, 0, 0), 1), 0) = ψ(ω Ω + Ω ψ(ωω +Ω ψ(ωω ) ) ) Γ 1 = φ(1, 0, 1) = ψ(ω Ω 2) Γ Γ 2 = φ(1, 0, 2) = ψ(ω Ω 3) Γ ω = φ(1, 0, ω) = ψ(ω Ω ω) Γ Γ0 = φ(1, 0, φ(1, 0, 0)) = ψ(ω Ω ψ(ω Ω )) Γ ΓΓ0 = φ(1, 0, φ(1, 0, φ(1, 0, 0))) = ψ(ω Ω ψ(ω Ω ψ(ω Ω ))) φ(1, 1, 0) = ψ(ω Ω+1 ) φ(1, 1, 0) + 1 φ(1, 0, φ(1, 1, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ω+1 + Ω Ω ) φ(1, 1, 1) = ψ(ω Ω+1 2) φ(1, 2, 0) = ψ(ω Ω+2 ) φ(1, ω, 0) = ψ(ω Ω+ω ) φ(1, φ(1, 0, 0), 0) = ψ(ω Ω+ψ(ΩΩ) ) φ(2, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2 ) φ(2, 0, 0) + 1 φ(2, 0, 1) = ψ(ω Ω2 2) φ(2, 1, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2+1 ) φ(3, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω3 ) φ(ω, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ωω ) φ(ω, 0, 0) + 1 φ(ω, 0, 0) 2 φ(ω, 0, 0) φ(ω,0,0) φ(1, φ(ω, 0, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ωω + 1) φ(2, φ(ω, 0, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ωω + Ω) φ(φ 1 (0), φ(ω, 0, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ωω + Ω ψ(0) ) φ(φ(1, 0, 0), φ(ω, 0, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ωω + Ω ψ(ωω) ) 10
11 φ(1, 0, φ(ω, 0, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ωω + Ω Ω ) φ(2, 0, φ(ω, 0, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ωω + Ω Ω2 ) φ(ω, 0, 1) = ψ(ω Ωω 2) φ(ω, 0, φ(ω, 0, 0)) = ψ(ω Ωω ψ(ω Ωω )) φ(ω, 1, 0) = ψ(ω Ωω+1 ) φ(ω, φ(ω, 0, 0), 0) = ψ(ω Ωω+ψ(ΩΩω) ) φ(ω + 1, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω(ω+1) ) φ(ω2, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ωω2 ) φ(ω ω, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ωωω ) φ(φ 1 (0), 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ωψ(0) ) φ(φ 1 (0), 0, 0) 2 φ(φ 1 (0), 0, 0) φ(φ 1(0),0,0) φ(1, φ(φ 1 (0), 0, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ωψ(0) + 1) φ(ω, φ(φ 1 (0), 0, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ωψ(0) + Ω ω ) φ(φ 1 (0), 0, 1) = ψ(ω Ωψ(0) 2) φ(φ 1 (0), 0, φ 1 (0)) = ψ(ω Ωψ(0) ψ(0)) φ(φ 1 (0), 0, φ(φ 1 (0), 0, 0)) = ψ(ω Ωψ(0) ψ(ω Ωψ(0) )) φ(φ 1 (0), 1, 0) = ψ(ω Ωψ(0)+1 ) φ(φ 1 (0), φ 1 (0), 0) = ψ(ω Ωψ(0)+ψ(0) ) φ(φ 1 (0), φ(φ 1 (0), 0, 0), 0) = ψ(ω Ωψ(0)+ψ(ΩΩψ(0)) ) φ(φ 1 (0) + 1, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω(ψ(0)+1) ) φ(φ 1 (1), 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ωψ(1) ) 11
12 φ(φ 1 (φ 1 (0)), 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ωψ(ψ(0)) ) φ(φ 2 (0), 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ωψ(Ω) ) φ(φ φ1 (0)(0), 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ωψ(Ωψ(0)) ) φ(φ(1, 0, 0), 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ωψ(ΩΩ) ) φ(φ(φ 1 (0), 0, 0), 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ωψ(ΩΩψ(0)) ) φ(1, 0, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2 ) φ(1, 0, 0, 0) + 1 φ(1, 0, 0, 0) + 2 φ(1, 0, 0, 0) + ω φ(1, 0, 0, 0)2 φ(1, 0, φ(1, 0, 0, 0) + 1) = ψ(ω Ω2 + Ω Ω ) φ(1, 0, 0, 1) = ψ(ω Ω2 2) φ(1, 0, 0, 1) + 1 φ(1, 0, 0, 2) = ψ(ω Ω2 3) φ(1, 0, 0, ω) = ψ(ω Ω2 ω) φ(1, 0, 1, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2 +1 ) φ(1, 0, 1, 0) + 1 φ(1, 0, 1, 1) = ψ(ω Ω2 +1 2) φ(1, 0, 2, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2 +2 ) φ(1, 0, ω, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2 +ω ) φ(1, 1, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2 +Ω ) φ(1, 1, 0, 0) + 1 φ(1, 1, 0, 1) = ψ(ω Ω2 +Ω 2) φ(1, 1, 1, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2 +Ω+1 ) φ(1, 2, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2 +Ω2 ) φ(1, ω, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2 +Ωω ) φ(2, 0, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω22 ) φ(2, 0, 0, 0) + 1 φ(2, 0, 0, 1) = ψ(ω Ω22 2) φ(2, 0, 1, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2 2+1 ) φ(2, 1, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2 2+Ω ) 12
13 φ(3, 0, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω23 ) φ(ω, 0, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω2ω ) φ(1, 0, 0, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω3 ) φ(1, 0, 0, 0, 0) + 1 φ(1, 0, 0, 0, 1) = ψ(ω Ω3 2) φ(1, 0, 0, 1, 0) = ψ(ω Ω3 +1 ) φ(1, 0, 1, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω3 +Ω ) φ(1, 1, 0, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω3 +Ω 2 ) φ(2, 0, 0, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω32 ) φ(1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) = ψ(ω Ω4 ) Conventions and notations: The order on finite rooted trees is recursively defined as follows: a tree A is less than a tree B, written A B, iff: either there is some child (=immediate subtree) B of B such that A B, or the following two conditions hold: every child A of A satisfies A B, and the list of children of A is lexicographically less than the list of children of B for the order (with the leftmost children having the most weight, i.e., either B has more children than A, or if A and B are the leftmost children on which they differ then A B ). This is a well-order. ω is the smallest infinite ordinal. Ordinal addition, multiplication and exponentiation are defined as usual: (i) α + 0 = α (ii) α + 1 is the successor of α. (iii) α + (β + 1) = (α + β) + 1 (iv) If δ is limit then α + δ is the limit of the α + β for β < δ. (v) α 0 = 0 (vi) α(β + 1) = αβ + α (vii) α 0 = 1 (viii) α β+1 = α β α φ 1 (α) = ε α is the α-th fixed point of ξ ω ξ (with the smallest: it is the limit of ω, ω ω, ω ωω, etc.). The Veblen hierarchy: For any β > 1, let φ β (α) be the α-th common fixed point of φ γ for all 0 < γ < β (with φ β (0) the smallest). Note: (i) φ β (α) is continuous in α for all β but it is not continuous in β except for α = 0. (ii) φ β+1 (0) is the limit of φ β (0), φ β (φ β (0)), φ β (φ β (φ β (0))), etc. (iii) φ β+1 (α + 1) is the limit of φ β+1 (α) + 1, φ β (φ β+1 (α) + 1), φ β (φ β (φ β+1 (α) + 1)), etc. (iv) If δ is limit (and β is arbitrary) then φ β (δ) is the limit of the φ β (ξ) for ξ < δ. (v) If δ is limit then φ δ (0) is the limit of the φ γ (0) for γ < δ. (vi) If δ is limit then φ δ (α + 1) is the limit of the φ γ (φ δ (α) + 1) for γ < δ. 13
14 φ(1, 0, α) = Γ α is the α-th fixed point of ξ φ ξ (0) (with Γ 0 the smallest: it is the limit of φ 1 (0), φ φ1(0)(0) φ φφ1 (0)(0)(0), etc.; this is known as the Feferman-Schütte ordinal). More generally, let φ(β, α) = φ β (α) (we only use the notation with a subscript for values less than Γ 0 ) and define φ of finitely many variables by: φ(β n, β n 1,..., β r, 0, 0,..., 0, α) is the α-th fixed point of all the ξ φ(γ n, γ n 1,..., γ r, ξ, 0, 0,..., 0) for (γ n,..., γ r ) lexicographically less than (β n,..., β r ) (the leftmost variable having the most weight), with the convention that φ(0, β n 1,..., β 0 ) = φ(β n 1,..., β 0 ). Ω is the first uncountable ordinal. A collapsing function: ψ(α) is defined inductively as the smallest ordinal not expressible from 0, 1, ω and Ω using addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and application of the function ψ itself to ordinals less than α. Or, more rigorously: Assume ψ has been defined for all ordinals β < α. Let C(α) be the set of ordinals constructed starting from 0, 1, ω and Ω by recursively applying the following functions: ordinal addition, multiplication and exponentiation and the function ψ α, i.e., the restriction of ψ to ordinals β < α. Formally, we define C(α) 0 = {0, 1, ω, Ω} and inductively C(α) n+1 = C(α) n {β 1 + β 2, β 1 β 2, β 1 β 2 : β 1, β 2 C(α) n } {ψ(β) : β C(α) n β < α} for all natural numbers n, and we let C(α) be the union of the C(α) n for all n. Define ψ(α) as the smallest ordinal not in C(α). It turns out that: (i) ψ is continuous and non-decreasing. (ii) The range of ψ is precisely the set of ε-numbers (i.e., fixed points of ξ ω ξ ) up to the Bachmann-Howard ordinal. (iii) C(α) consists exactly of those ordinals whose iterated base Ω representation only has pieces less than ψ(α); in particular, C(α) Ω = α. (iv) ψ(α + 1) is always equal either to the first ε-number after ψ(α) this happens when α C(α) or else to ψ(α) which happens when α C(α). (v) If δ is limit then ψ(δ) is the limit of the ψ(ξ) for ξ < δ. (vi) ψ(α + Ω) is the first fixed point of ξ ψ(α + ξ). (vii) ψ(αω) is the first fixed point of ξ ψ(αξ). (viii) ψ(α Ω ) is the first fixed point of ξ ψ(α ξ ). (ix) ψ(α βω ) is the first fixed point of ξ ψ(α βξ ). Certain ordinals have special names: ψ(ω Ω ) = φ(1, 0, 0) = Γ 0 is the Feferman-Schütte ordinal : it is the set of ordinals constructed starting from 0, 1, ω by recursively applying ordinal addition, multiplication and exponentiation and the Veblen functions φ β (α) of two variables; ψ(ω Ωω ) is the small Veblen ordinal: it is the set of ordinals constructed starting from 0, 1, ω by recursively applying ordinal addition, multiplication and exponentiation and the Veblen functions φ( ) of finitely many variables, and it is also the length of the ordering of finite rooted trees; ψ(ω ΩΩ ) is the large Veblen ordinal (it can be defined similarly to the small Veblen ordinal using a generalization of φ( ) to transfinitely many variables all but finitely many of which are zero); ψ(ε Ω+1 ) is the Bachmann-Howard ordinal. 14
15 α example α example = φ(φ 1 (1), ω, ω 2 + ω) φ(2,0,ωωω2 ) φ(ω ωω+1, ω, φ(1, 0, 0)) φ(ω ω + ω, 0, 2) = ψ(ω Ωψ(1)+ω (ω 2 + ω)) ψ(ωω2 ω ωω2 ) ψ(ω Ωωωω+1 +ω ψ(ω Ω )) ψ(ω Ω(ωω +ω) 3) 15
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