In the framework of the utilization of the project : The following report was written with the title: LANDSCAPE STUDIES

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2 PROLOGUE In the framework of the utilization of the project : MODELAND: Landscape, Territorial Mark Of Identity And Driving Force For A New Model Of Territorial Governance In Mediterranean Rural Areas The following report was written with the title: LANDSCAPE STUDIES from Christou Odyssea and GeoInfo's project team with the collaboration of Larnaca's Development Agency members This report is provided within the documents of the contract and our technical offer, and has as a goal to record the utilization and the results of the Landscape studies that was conducted by GeoInfo. This report consists the deliverable of the works phase C3.2 Landscape Studies according to the project's provisions. GeoInfo proceeded to the composition of the current issue on behalf and in concert with Larnaca's Development Agency (Contracting Authority). The composition adjusted to the changes that were defined at the opening meeting and the various other meetings of the project Thessaloniki, December 2011 The Authorized Representative Christou Odyssea G.E.O. Geoinfo Applied Studies & Research Agalianou 26, Pilaia Thessaloniki 54352, Greece Tel. : , Fax geoinfo@geoinfo.gr - 1 -

3 CONTENTS 1. Introduction General Information Selection of the Study Area What is Landscape? Methodological Approach Regional Landscape Character Assessments Literature Review Experience on relative projects in Cyprus Identification work in rural areas Digital mapping of landscape components Topography Anaglyph (Relief map) Geology Τhe Pentadaktylos (Kyrenia) Zone Troodos Zone or Troodos Ophiolite Mamonia Zone or Complex Zone of the authochthaonous sedimentary rocks Geotectonic Evolution Pedology Land Cover- CORINE Natura Hydrographic Network Settlements Structured Areas Transportation Road Network Points of Interest Cultural Monuments Landscape components and calibration of gravity Application of Multicriteria Decision-Making System Standardization - Documentation - Mapping of Landscape Character Territory Landscape Character Assessment Evaluation of «Regional Landscape Character Assessment» Identification Work in Rural Areas Digital Mapping of Landscape components [1:50000] Standardization - Documentation - Mapping of Landscape Character L0 - Urban and Suburban Landscapes L000 - Undivided Urban Landscapes L001 - Urban Landscapes of Town L002 - Urban Landscapes of Suburbs L003 Urban Landscapes of Lowland Rural Settlements L004 - Urban Landscapes of Semi-mountainous Rural Settlements L005 - Urban Landscapes of Mountainous Rural Settlements L006 - Special Urban Landscapes L1 Landscapes on Troodos mount range L100 Undivided Troodos mount range landscapes L101 - Intense mountainous relief L102 - Mountainous relief Forested L103 - Mountainous relief Shrubby L104 - Mountainous relief Reforestation with terraces

4 L105 - Mountainous Relief - Cultivated L106 - Valleys within mountainous relief L107 - Particular landscapes in mountainous relief (Artificial lakes, Mines, etc) L2 - Landscapes on Pentadaktylos mount range and in Karpasia Pentadaktylos Karpasia L3 - White hilly Landscapes (regional of the Troodos mountain) L5 - Lowland Landscapes L500- Indivisible Lowland Landscape L501 - Mesaoria Lowland Landscape (eastern main plain) L502 - Morphou Lowland Landscape (western main plain) L503 - Red soil Lowland Landscape L504 - Coastal Lowland Zone Landscape L505 - Particular Lowland Landscaapes Rural Landscape Cultivated Mountainous Relief [L105] Landscape Structure Local Landscape Characters Kokkinochoria Red soils Lowland Landscape [L503] Landscape Structure Topic Landscape Characters Lowland Coastal Zone Landscape Larnaca Plain Landscape Structure Topic Landscape Characters Urban Landscape Perivolia Lowland Landscapes of Rural Areas [L001] Landscape Structure Local Landscape Characters Kato Drys Landscapes of semi mountainous rural villages [L002] Landscape Structure Local Landscape Characters

5 1 Κ Ε Φ Α Λ Α Ι Ο 1. Introduction [01] Larnaca's Development Agency (ANEL), takes part in the utilization of the project MODELAND: Landscape, Territorial Mark Of Identity And Driving Force For A New Model Of Territorial Governance In Mediterranean Rural Areas within the framework of the Community Initiative MED. This particular project is a transnational institution cooperation, targeting at people, local authorities, and no-urban areas of the Mediterranean. The main goal is to rise the public's awareness about the value of the natural landscape, and more specifically: The importance that must be given to the natural landscape, during the design of the regional development The importance of the landscape to the definition of an area's identity To protect and to promote the natural landscape [02] In the framework of the utilization of this project, a Landscape Studies was carried out by Geoinfo, The implementation was done in a framework of experience, expertise and infrastructures. The current state defined primarily the detail of analysis as follows: Experience in European Projects - Environmental Projects. Cyprus is a relatively new country in the E.U. Relatively little experience in European Projects. Relatively little experience in related projects- Small knowledge reserve. Digital Geographic Data. Limited volume of geographic information in digital form The Availability and Diffusion of Geographic Information data is limited Most of the Geographic Information data was created within the project. Experience / Knowledge in the Natural Landscape and management. The European Convention on Landscape is in its early stages of implementation. A relative project is in development with only its initial results available. Other relative projects are on their initial stages with no results available yet

6 2 Κ Ε Φ Α Λ Α Ι Ο 2. General Information 2.1 Selection of the Study Area [01] Cyprus is the third largest Mediterranean island with a surface area of 9251 sq. km. It lies in the north-eastern corner of the Mediterranean Sea approximately centred on latitude 35 N and longitude 33 E. [02] The selection of the study area was made in order to conclude the larger part of Larnaca district (except the areas under Turkish occupation), and a part of Famagusta (Free Amochostos) district. The selected area is depicted on the following map (Map 1 : Study AreaError! Reference source not found.). Map 1 : Study Area - 5 -

7 [03] The selection of the study are was made with the following criteria in mind: To conclude the administrative boundaries were Larnaca Development Agency operates it self To avoid the areas were access is impossible (areas controlled by Turkish military forces after the 1974 invasion) To include the Regional Landscape Characters of Cyprus and their geographical appearance in the selected area Free Amochostos area has relevance with the landscapes of Larnaca District, and the area presents a particular interest regarding landscape changes To reach with the results of the research the aims of the project as possible [04] The administrative boundaries of the study area are depicted on the following map (map 2), whilst information about the local communities are given for Larnaca district in table 1 and for free Amochostos in table 2. Map 1 : Administrative boundaries of the study area - 6 -

8 Table 1 : Communes in the study area from Ammochosto district α/α Code Name commune Disadvantage Average altitude Total Population Male Female AGIA NAPA Disadvantaged lowland area PARALIMNI Disadvantaged lowland area DERYNEIA Disadvantaged lowland area SOTIRA Disadvantaged lowland area LIOPETRI Disadvantaged lowland area FRENAROS Disadvantaged lowland area AVGOUROU Disadvantaged lowland area ACHNA Disadvantaged lowland area ACHERITOU Disadvantaged lowland area Table 2 : Communes in the study area from Larnaca district a/a Code Name commune Disadvantage Average altitude Total Population Male Female LARNAKA ARADIPPOU Non-disadvantaged lowland area LIVADIA Non-disadvantaged lowland area DROMOLAXIA Non-disadvantaged lowland area MENEOU Non-disadvantaged lowland area KELLIA Disadvantaged lowland area TROULLOI Disadvantaged lowland area OROKLINI Disadvantaged lowland area AVDELLERO Disadvantaged lowland area PYLA Disadvantaged lowland area XYLOTYMVOU Disadvantaged lowland area ORMIDEIA Disadvantaged lowland area XYLOFAGOU Disadvantaged lowland area KITI Disadvantaged lowland area PERIVOLIA Disadvantaged lowland area TERSEFANOU Disadvantaged lowland area SOFTADES Disadvantaged lowland area MAZOTOS Disadvantaged lowland area ALAMINOS Disadvantaged lowland area ANAFOTIDA Disadvantaged lowland area KIVISILI Disadvantaged lowland area ALETHRIKO Disadvantaged lowland area KLAUDIA Disadvantaged lowland area AGGLISIDES Disadvantaged lowland area MENOGEIA Disadvantaged lowland area PETROFANI Disadvantaged lowland area ATHIENOY Disadvantaged lowland area KALO CHORIO Disadvantaged lowland area AGIA ANNA Disadvantaged lowland area MOSFILOTI Disadvantaged lowland area

9 PSEYDAS Disadvantaged lowland area PYRGA semi-hilly disadvantaged area KORNOS semi-hilly disadvantaged area DELIKIPOS semi-hilly disadvantaged area ZYGI Disadvantaged lowland area MARI Disadvantaged lowland area KALAVASOS Disadvantaged lowland area TOCHNI Disadvantaged lowland area CHOIROKITIA Disadvantaged lowland area PSEMATISMENOS Disadvantaged lowland area MARONI Disadvantaged lowland area AGIOS THEODOROS Disadvantaged lowland area SKARINOY Disadvantaged lowland area KOFINOU Disadvantaged lowland area KATO LEYKARA semi-hilly disadvantaged area PANO LEYKARA semi-hilly disadvantaged area KATO DRYS semi-hilly disadvantaged area VALVA semi-hilly disadvantaged area LAGEIA semi-hilly disadvantaged area ORA semi-hilly disadvantaged area MELINI Hilly disadvantaged area ODOY Hilly disadvantaged area AG. VAVATSINIAS Hilly disadvantaged area VAVATSINIAS Hilly disadvantaged area

10 2.2 What is Landscape? [05] The landscape is somewhat more than the View of an area. Ii is the relationship between people, space, and nature. It is the perpetual changing scenery of our daily lives. It can be expressed equally by a landfill, o forested mountain side, a small park of an urban neighborhood, a green hilly area etc. [06] The landscape results as an interaction of its different elements, both natural and cultural as they are being perceived by us. People appreciate landscape for many different reasons. Thus, it is of crucial importance to comprehend the status of today's landscape, the ways that shaped it, and how it may be altered in the future. [07] Landscape s components can be summarized as follows in the following matrix: Components of the Landscape Experience The landscape is somewhat more than the accumulation of the natural characteristics that compose its form. The way a landscape has been experienced interacts a great many ways in how we treat and respect its value and character. History Mainly, all of Cyprus landscapes have been shaped under the effect of human activities during the ages. Thus, it is of great importance to understand the structures of the past, in what degree they have been conserved, and finally how each historic period contributed to the formation of current landscape characters. Land Use The term Land Use describes all the possible uses of space from people, such as settlements, industrial areas, tourism infrastructure, agriculture, forestry, etc. Nowadays, the Cyprus landscape character has been particularly affected by these uses, with a reference peak point the refugees settlement after the Turkish invasion. Wildlife The variety of plant and animal species (biodiversity) has been shaped through thousands of years of composite interaction between the social, historical and economical factors of the island. Wild life and its populations define in an important way the character and many times the functionality of the landscape Natural Form Through natural forms we define the Geology, the Morphology, the Soil, the Hydrographic Network and Vegetation. The relief dominates the landscape's character mainly in hilly and mountainous areas, the hydrographic network also, influences a great many ways the landscape. Finally, geology and the soil type define the suitability of an area regarding uses of agriculture, settlement etc. [08] The landscape of Life : A landscape contributes to our needs just like natural environment. Our activities influence and shape the character of a landscape as well as its functionality

11 [09] Our activities that interact with the landscape's character can be summarized as follows in the following matrix: The landscape of life Recreation and Health When one takes a quiet stroll, or a walk on the beach, or jog on a nature trail, the landscape affects the persons psyche, helping the person to remain healthy and in contact with nature itself. Wildlife and Biodiversity Landscape can be made more hospitable for wildlife by improving and adjoining habitats, thus ensuring that land use and development act both in favor of nature and people. Education and Life Experiences A landscape offers many chances for us to know better our world. The seasonal transformations of a landscape, and the minor details that defines its uniqueness consist a source of knowledge and a generation source of emotions and memories. Agriculture, Pasture Agriculture and pasture have shaped the landscape for thousands of years the cultivation of the land creates patterns and textures that define each landscape's character. Natural Resources Nature can provide useful resources such as water, energy, structural materials etc. The availability of natural resources and the way that people mange them affects a great many ways to the formation of the functionality and the character of a landscape. Transportation and Infrastructure Transportation and other infrastructure networks are intrinsic components of the character of the modern landscape. Regardless their location, a road, an electricity pylon, a telecommunication antenna are integral parts of a landscape. Settlements During the historical evolution, the settlements position was defined by the benefits that natural environment provided (access to water, food, structural materials, defense, etc). With the development of the settlements, they began in their turn to shape and affect the landscape's character, mainly through architecture, structural materials, road networks and infrastructures in general. History The landscape is a living archive of human evolution and its development into societies. The remains of building structures through the landscape such as historical monuments, provide a valuable historical experience that can be used for future planning. [10] Landscape Characters : A landscape character is: Unique, recognizable and with a constant pattern o of landscape components. To put simply, this pattern makes a place different from an other, and not better or worse. It is the sole reason behind an area's uniqueness.. [11] Especially the combination of geology, relief, soil, vegetation, land use, cultivation methods and human infrastructure define a landscape's character. In its turn

12 that Landscape Character defines an area as unique and adds a certain Aesthetic Identity. [12] Landscape Values : The landscape value is relevant and it is related to the particularities of different landscapes. In a political framework, the usual base for recognizing landscapes of exceptional importance is through the implication of the landscape characterization on a regional and on a national scale. However, a landscape can be valued through different communities of interest for different reasons without a formal name or identification. The value of a landscape can be individually distinguished in: Definable Values : As definable values of a landscape we mean those that are recognized, and legislated in a national, European or a global scale, through nations, institutions etc. For example Natura 2000 areas, Ramsar Convention etc. They are considered as elements of cultural heritage and such values are natural, aesthetic, ecological, symbolic, geographical etc. Perceivable Values : Perceivable values are more subjective and are derived from the reference landscape, they may differentiate from one observer to an other, and such are hydrology, architecture, natural areas, permanent horizons, aesthetic values (color, texture), heritage, trails, optical values etc. [13] Landscape Dynamics : The Character of a Landscape is a result of perpetual processes through the ages. For thousands of years, landscape is being affected by peoples needs for sheltering, food and energy. This interaction with the natural environment has shaped today's landscape. [14] In general, the intensity and the scale of the influence on the landscape constantly increases. The ways of usage, development, and management of rural and urban areas keep changing defined by the increasing needs of the society. [15] Nowadays, an interrelated extend of Natural, Environmental, Economical and Social forces, tend to differentiate the functions and the character of the landscapes. These forces are either of natural origin such as climate change, tectonics, etc, or are derived from human development and the increasing demands of society. [16] It is an imperative need for raising awareness in decision making regarding landscape aesthetics, functionality, and sustainability. There are many forces that can alter the landscape, and for the study area the most important are: Agriculture Forestry Natural Resources Settlements Infrastructure Energy Tourism Climate Change Environmental Management

13 [17] Landscape Sensitivity : Landscape sensitivity, regards the stability of a landscape's character, the degree in which that character is capable to be restored after a sudden loss or damage. A landscape character with a high degree of sensitivity is vulnerable and can be lost due to the difficulty of restoration. A character when assessed, must be treated with tenderness and attention in order to survive. The sensitivity indicates something about the landscape's behavior under pressure or stimulation. A system when enhanced, can be robust and durable under pressure, whereas others may be easily disrupted. A system may also considered as dynamic- The pressure that can send a system to a new form or the system may be robust enough to restore quickly and be detached from a certain disturbance. The sensitivity can be related to a landscape's character and the way it is susceptible to changes. Landscapes present different sensitivities to various forms of changes and development. Landscapes that are especially sensitive are in danger of having alterations to their substantial characteristics thus leading to a change of landscape character which means a landscape with a different total of basic characteristics. The sensitivity is evaluated through having in mind the natural and perceivable characteristics of landscapes based in certain forms of development. [18] The landscape's sensitivity assessment is based on the following assumptions: In each landscape type, some characteristics may contribute more in the definition of the landscape's character than others In each landscape type, some characteristics are more susceptible to changes than others In each landscape type, the degree in which the different characteristics can be replaced or restored may differ The landscape's state the degree in which the descriptive characteristic of a given landscape is indeed present in the field will vary in the defined area of that landscape type [19] By being in position to value the importance, the susceptibility and the replacement capability of different characteristics, the relative stability and durability of various characteristics of a given landscape type can be assessed. In accordance, by taking into account the current state or the representativeness of a character, the sensitivity of a specific domain of a landscape can be defined

14 2.3 Methodological Approach [01] Για την ιαχείριση και τους Μελλοντικούς Σχεδιασμούς σε μια περιοχή, οι αποφάσεις μας πρέπει να λάβουν υπόψη και να σεβαστούν τους υπάρχοντες Χαρακτήρες Τοπίου. Κατανοώντας τις διαφορές από περιοχή σε περιοχή, μπορούμε να εξασφαλίσουμε ότι οι μελλοντικές αναπτύξεις, θα είναι οι κατάλληλες, καλά χωροθετημένες και προσαρμοσμένες στο τοπίο, συμβάλλοντας έτσι στην περιβαλλοντική, κοινωνική και οικονομική ανάπτυξη. [02] Η «Επισκόπηση του Χαρακτήρα Τοπίων» είναι μια μεθοδολογική προσέγγιση για την κατανόηση των διαφορών μεταξύ των τοπίων και τα αποτελέσματα της μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν στις ιαδικασίες Λήψης Αποφάσεων. Η μεθοδολογία αυτή είναι προσαρμοσμένη στις κυπριακές συνθήκες, και βοηθά στην κατανόηση, πως οι επιμέρους συνιστώσες, συνθέτουν την αισθητική του τοπίου. Πρόκειται για ένα χρήσιμο εργαλείο που συμβάλει στην ιαδικασία Λήψης Αποφάσεων, σε θέματα βιώσιμης ανάπτυξης, κοινωνικά θέματα, σε θέματα οικιστικής ανάπτυξης, σε αγροτικά θέματα, σε θέματα διαχείρισης γης, κτλ. [03] Η «Επισκόπηση του Χαρακτήρα Τοπίων», ανάλογα με την κλίμακα επεξεργασίας διακρίνεται σε τρία στάδια από τα οποία προκύπτουν οι «Χαρακτήρες Τοπίου» για τον κυπριακό χώρο και ειδικότερα στην περιοχή μελέτης, Οι «Χαρακτήρες Τοπίου» α- κολουθούν ένα ιεραρχικό μοντέλο με αντίστοιχα τρία επίπεδα πληροφορίας (1 η Τάξης, κτλ). Regional Landscape Character Assessment Η ακρίβεια της πρωτογενούς πληροφορίας προέρχεται από χάρτες κλίμακας 1: Η επεξεργασία έγινε σε επίπεδο χώρας και πρόεκυψαν οι 1 η τάξης Χαρακτήρες Τοπίου ή αλλιώς «Περιφερειακοί Χαρακτήρες Τοπίου». Territory Landscape Character Assessment Η ακρίβεια της πρωτογενούς πληροφορίας προέρχεται από χάρτες κλίμακας 1: Η επεξεργασία έγινε σε επίπεδο περιοχής μελέτης και πρόεκυψαν οι 2 η τάξης Χαρακτήρες Τοπίου ή αλλιώς «Περιοχικοί Χαρακτήρες Τοπίου». Topic Landscape Character Assessment Η ακρίβεια της πρωτογενούς πληροφορίας προέρχεται από χάρτες κλίμακας 1:5000. Η επεξεργασία έγινε σε επίπεδο επιλεγμένων περιοχών και πρόεκυψαν οι 3 η τάξης Χαρακτήρες Τοπίου ή αλλιώς «Τοπικοί Χαρακτήρες Τοπίου»

15 3 Κ Ε Φ Α Λ Α Ι Ο 3. Regional Landscape Character Assessments [04] The Regional Landscape Character Assessment concerns the whole island, and the analysis was based on data from maps of scale 1: The following tasks were made: Literature Review Experience on relative projects in Cyprus Identification Work in Rural Areas Digital Mapping of Landscape Components Landscape components and their weight calibration Application of Multicriteria decision-making system Standardization - Documentation - Mapping of Landscape Character' at regional level [05] Next, a brief description of the aforementioned tasks is given, whereas in the following paragraphs the raw data are being analyzed along with the results of the Regional Overview of the Landscapes Character. 3.1 Literature Review [01] The main goal of the task was a briefing before the implementation of the Regional Landscape Character Assessment. More specifically the following were taken into consideration: The proposed methodology within the project s framework The up to date results of the Cyprus Landscape Mapping Project The Landscape Character Network of England Relative to Landscape International literature Literature about the Cyprus area 3.2 Experience on relative projects in Cyprus [02] The main goal was to utilize the up to now relative experience of Larnaca's Development Agency as Geoinfo's as well in order to implement in the best possible way the "Landscape Character Assessment ". More specifically the following were taken into consideration:

16 Implementation of a number of projects regarding in Geosciences and Environment. Implementation of a number of projects regarding of Urban Planning Implementation of a number of projects regarding of GIS and Remote Sensing Outdoors borehole registration Annual inspection of crops by remote sensing Creation of digital Cadastral maps of Cyprus 3.3 Identification work in rural areas [01] Aim to obtain a comprehensive picture of the landscape in the study area, to evaluate it under the scopes of the project objectives, thereby contributing to the optimal implementation of Landscape Character Assessment. More specifically the following were taken into consideration: Spring Identification Work in Rural Areas Identification of spring-summer works in rural areas Evaluation - Archiving photographic 3.4 Digital mapping of landscape components [01] The aim of these tasks was to transform in digital media (layers of geographical information) all the contributing information that define a landscape's character. The geographical information layers are then adjusted properly in order to be

17 used for the best implementation of the Landscape Character Assessment. More specifically the following were taken into consideration: Topography Anaglyph (Relief map) Geology Pedology Land Uses Corine Natura 2000 Hydrographic Network Settlements - Structured areas Transportation - Road Network Points of Interest - Cultural Monuments

18 3.4.1 Topography Anaglyph (Relief map) Geology [01] Cyprus is the third largest Mediterranean island with a surface area of 9251 sq. km. It lies in the north-eastern corner of the Mediterranean Sea approximately centred on latitude 35 N and longitude 33 E. The island is divided into four geological zones: Τhe Pentadaktylos (Kyrenia) Zone Τhe Troodos Zone or Troodos Ophiolite Τhe Mamonia Zone or Complex The Zone of the auttochthonous sedmentary rocks Χάρτης 1: Μορφολογικός χάρτης της Κυπρου Τhe Pentadaktylos (Kyrenia) Zone [01] The Pentadaktylos (Kyrenia) Zone is the northern-most geological zone of Cyprus and is considered to be the southern-most portion of the Tauro-Diraride Alpine Zone. It forms a narrow, steep-sided chain of mountains that rise abruptly from the surrounding lowlands and runs from Cape Kormakitis in the west to Cape Andreas in the east making a very open curvature that faces to the north. The crest of the range for most of its length varies in altitude between 800 and 1024m. To the north this very rugged range is separated from the sea by a narrow terraced coastal plain that is never more than 5 km wide. In contrast, it is flanked to the south by the broad lowlands of the Mesaoria Plain. [02] The Pentadaktylos Zone is structurally a complex assemblage of Permian to Recent sedimentary and limited metamorphic and igneous rocks. The three main

19 geological formations (Triassic-Lower Cretaceous, Ma) are the allochthonous Dhikomo, Sykhari and Hilarion Formations, which form the main carbonate masses of the Pentadaktylos Range. The Dhikomo Formation consists of deformed thinly bedded limestones with layers of grey and green phyllites. The Sykhari Formation is composed of massive to thickly bedded dolomitic limestones. The Hilarion Formation consists of medium-bedded to massive limestones, which were subjected to a low degree of metamorphism. Impressive and continuous outcrops of limestones occur in the central part of the range, whereas in the eastern part occur in the form of olistholiths referred to as the Kantara Formation (Permian-Carboniferous, Ma).These allochthonous formations were thrusted southward over the younger autochthonous marine sediments, which are known as the Lapithos, Kalogrea-Ardana (Belapais) and Kythrea Formations. [03] The oldest autochthonous unit in the Pentadaktylos Range is the Lapithos Formation of Campanian to Eocene age (85 40 Ma). The Formation consists of pelagic marls and chalks, with cherts which occur as faulted and schistose beds containing contemporaneous lava horizons of basaltic and rhyolitic composition. The Lapithos Formation is followed in upward succession by the Kalogrea-Ardana Flysch (Bellapais Formation) of Upper Eocene age (35 Ma). The Kalogrea-Ardana Flysch is uncomformably overlain by the Kythrea Formation or Kythrea Flysch as it is best known, which outcrops along both sides of the Pentadaktylos Range as a thick and much folded sequence of sandstones, siltstones and marls of mid- Miocene age (15 Ma). On the south side of the range, the Kythrea Flysch interfingers with the Pakhna chalks and marls. [04] The fracturing and karstification of the allochthonous limestones made them excellent aquifers and gave rise to a number of significant springs at the foothills of the mountain range, close to the contact of the limestones with the underlying marly-argillaceous rocks Troodos Zone or Troodos Ophiolite [01] The Troodos Ophiolite or the Troodos Zone dominates the central part of the island, constitutes the geological core of Cyprus, appears in two regions (main mass of the Troodos mountain range and in the Limassol and Akapnou Forests south of the range) and has a characteristic elongated domal structure. Minor outcrops appear in the Akamas peninsula and in the area of Troulloi village. It was formed in the Upper Cretaceous (90 Ma) on the Tethys sea floor, which then extended from the Pyrenees through the Alps to the Himalayas. It is regarded as the most complete and studied ophiolite in the world. It is a fragment of a fully developed oceanic crust, consisting of plutonic, intrusive and volcanic rocks and chemical sediments. The stratigraphic completeness of the ophiolite makes it unique. It was created during the complex process of oceanic spreading and formation of oceanic crust and was emerged and placed in its present position through complicated tectonic processes relating to the collision of the Eurasian plate to the north and the African plate to the south. The stratigraphy of the ophiolite shows a topographic inversion, with the lower suites of rocks outcropping in the highest points of the range, while the upper rocks appear on the flanks of the ophiolite. This apparent inversion is related to the way the ophiolite

20 was uplifted (diapirically) and to its differential erosion. The diapiric rising of its core took place mainly with episodes of abrupt uplift up to the Pleistocene (2 Ma). [02] The Troodos Ophiolite consists of the following stratigraphic units, in ascending order: Plutonics (mantle sequence and cumulates), Intrusives, Volcanics and Chemical sediments. [03] Plutonics : The mantle sequence is thus termed because the rocks that form this suite are considered to be the residuals after the partial melting of the upper mantle and the formation of basaltic magma, from which the remaining rocks of the ophiolite have been derived. It is mainly composed of harzburgite and dunite with 50-80% of the original minerals altered to serpentine, and serpentinite (with or without concentrations of asbestos) where the alteration is almost complete. [04] The cumulate rocks are the products of crystallisation and concentration of the crystals at the floor of the magma chamber, beneath the zones of sea floor spreading. The main cumulate rocks include dunite with or without chromite concentrations, wehrlite, pyroxenite, gabbro and plagiogranites, which are observed in small discontinued occurrences. [05] Intrusives : The intrusive rocks(sheeted Dyke Complex Diabase) have a basaltic to doleritic composition and were formed by the solidification of the magma in the channels, through which it intruded from the magma champers at the bottom of the oceanic crust feeding at the same time the submarine extraction of lava on the sea floor. [06] Volcanics : The Sheeted Dyke Complex is followed by a suite of volcanic rocks that consist of two series of pillow lavas and lava flows, mainly of basaltic composition. The pillow lavas have a characteristic spherical to ellipsoidal pillow shape, cm in diameter, which were formed as a result of submarine volcanic activity. Between the intrusive rocks and the pillow lavas a transitional zone known as the Basal Group occurs. Dykes dominate the Basal Group while pillows are less common. [07] The Perapedhi Formation is composed of umber (chemical sediment), radiolarites and radiolaritic shales. These were the first sediments deposited over the ophiolite rocks as a result of hydrothermal activity (hot solutions rich in Fe and Mn) and sedimentation on the sea floor Mamonia Zone or Complex [01] The Mamonia Zone or Complex constitutes a diverse and structurally complex assemblage of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, ranging in age from Middle Triassic to Upper Cretaceous ( Ma). These rocks, which are regarded as allochthonous in relation to the overlying autochthonous carbonate successions and the Troodos ophiolite rocks, were placed over and adjacent the

21 Troodos ophiolite during the Maistrichtian. They occur only on the southern part of Cyprus with extensive outcrops at Pafos region. [02] The stratigraphic classification of the Mamonia Complex poses problems, however three main groups can be recognized. Volcanic (lavas) and sedimentary rocks (recrystallised limestones) of the Dhiarizos Group. Pelagic sedimentary rocks (limestones, mudstones and quartzitic sandstones) of the Ayios Photios Group. Metamorphic rocks (schists and marbles) of the Ayia Varvara Group. These rocks were derived from the metamorphism of the Dhiarizos Group. [03] Overlying the Mamonia Complex rocks, there is an allochthonous sedimentary formation, known as Kathikas Melange, which is directly related to the emplacement of the Mamonia Complex. [04] The high degree of deformation and alteration in combination with the underlying bentonitic clays and the steep topography is considered as one of the main factors of instability in the Pafos region. N addition, the earthquakes have played (and still play) their own, very significant role Zone of the authochthaonous sedimentary rocks [05] The Zone of the autochthonous sedimentary rocks, ranging in age from Upper Cretaceous through to Pleistocene (67 Ma to recent), covers the area between the Pentadaktylos and Troodos Zones (Mesaoria) as well as the southern part of the island. It consists of bentonitic clays, volcaniclastics, melange, marls, chalks, cherts, limestones, calcarenites, evaporites and clastic sediments. [06] The geological history of Cyprus from the Upper Cretaceous (67 Ma) is characterised by marine sedimentation in a sea which becomes gradually more shallow. Sedimentation begins with the deposition of the Kannaviou Formation (bentonitic clays, volcaniclastics), followed by the deposition of the Moni and Kathikas Formations (melange). Carbonate sedimentation begins from the Palaeocene (65 Ma) with the deposition of the Lefkara Formation, which includes pelagic marls and chalks with characteristic white colour, with or without cherts. The classic development of the Formation is represented by four members: Lower Marls, Chalks with layers of chert, massive Chalks and Upper Marls. [07] The Lefkara Formation is followed by the Pakhna Formation (Miocene, 22 Ma), which consists mainly of yellowish marls and chalks. The colour of the rocks, the presence of calcarenitic layers and the occasional development of conglomerates are characteristics that differentiate the Pakhna from the Lefkara Formation. Sedimentation in the Pakhna Formation began and terminated in shallow-water environment with the development of reefal limestones (Terra Member at the base and Koronia Member at the top of the Formation). [08] The deposition of the evaporites of the Kalavasos Formation followed in the Upper Miocene (Messinian, 6 Ma) as a result of the closure of the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean and the evaporation of its waters. The Formation is composed of gypsum and gypsiferous marls that cover extensive areas. Gypsum

22 occurs in four types: sugary (crystalline), laminated ( marble ), selenite (transparent with large twin crystals) and alabastre (massive semitrasparent). [09] With the re-connection of the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean, a new cycle of sedimentation began (Pliocene, 5 Ma). The Nicosia Formation was deposited first and contains siltstones (grey and yellow) and layers of calcarenites and marls. This is followed by the Athalassa Formation (Plio-Pleistocene, 2 Ma) consisting of calcarenites interlayered with sandy marls. Finally, the Fanglomerate is a Pleistocene formation and includes clastic deposits (gravels, sand and silt) Geotectonic Evolution [01] The genesis of Cyprus took place through a series of tectonic episodes. It originated with the subduction of the African Plate beneath the Eurasian Plate and the formation of the Troodos Ophiolite (Upper Cretaceous, 90 Ma), continued with its detachment and sinistral rotation of 90 and the attachment to its southern and western part of older rocks ranging in age from 230 to 75 Ma (Mamonia Zone). [02] A period of relative tectonic inactivity followed, spaning in time from approximately 75 to 10 Ma, was characterised by carbonate sedimentation and gradual shallowing of the sedimentary basin (Lefkara and Pakhna Formations). The placement of the Pentadaktylos Range in the northern part of the Troodos Zone and the uplift of the island to almost its present position (Miocene, Ma) constitutes the second last tectonic episode. [03] With the subduction of the plates and their relevant readjustment, the plates moved northwards so that their southern edges were placed in the area where the Pentadaktylos Range would finally be positioned. Marine sedimentation and relative tectonic inactivity dominated south of that area following the merging of the Troodos and the Mamonia Zones. At the same time the periodic uplift of the Troodos began following its formation, creating the island. At the end of Miocene (6 Ma), in the north-most part of the region which would constitute Cyprus, a series of allochthonous limestones (Pentadaktylos Zone) was placed over the flanks of the Troodos Zone, folding and displacing all of the younger sediments. East of Cyprus the Tethys Sea was closed and the Mediterranean Sea obtained almost its present shape. [04] The re-connection of the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean (with the opening of the Gibraltar) and the rise of the sea level, resulted in the deposition of new sediments, which are today represented by the marls and calcarenites of the Nicosia and Athalassa Formations. An abrupt uplift of the area occurred during the Pleistocene, approximately 2 million years ago (last tectonic episode), where the Troodos and Pentadaktylos Ranges were uplifted in elevations higher than today s. The abrupt uplift combined with heavy rainfall, resulted in extensive erosion of the ranges, particularly that of Troodos, with the transportation of large quantities of erosion material (clastic deposits). These clastic sediments were deposited in large valleys and in the Mesaoria region, forming the Pleistocene Fanglomerates

23 3.4.3 Pedology Soil is the result of the combined energy of climate, rocks, herbal and animal organisms, morphology and time. In Cyprus the main factors that created soils are climate and rocks. Wherever the geological background is covered by soil, usually in smooth inclinations, then this is the factor that defines the character of a landscape. Geology however, does not looses its dominant role regarding the landscapes character, for the sole reason that it defines mostly the soil type. Map 2: Cyprus Soil Map Based on the soil map Reconnaissance Soil Map of Cyprus, scaled to 1: , the soil classes that are present in Cyprus are the following: Kafkala soils Terra Rosa soils Red-soils Gray-soils Humic-carbonate soils (xerorentzines and retzines) Immature-limestone soils Alluvial soils Immature-siliceous soils Podzolic soils Mamonia soils Organic and Humic soils Aeolian or Wind-transported soils

24 Each of the aforementioned soil classes can be subdivided to several soil series according to the differences that they present in some characteristics, such as structure, texture, color, permeability, field capacity, PH etc. [05] Kafkala soils: It is a hard limestone crust which appears on plateaus or on trapezoid formations. Under the kafkala crust there is usually the havara, namely a soft and friable rock. Kafkalas are distinguished in two species, those that are flat and can be exploited with many means, and those that are inclined and can not be easily exploited. The exploitation of the flat kafkala can be achieved with the fragmentation of the crust and the planting of carob trees and other limestone-friendly trees. Kafkalas are often found in Kokinochoria plateau, scattered around Mesaoria area (mostly west and north-west of Sinta, north of Kontea, around the villages: Pigi, Milia, Gypsou, Lapathos etc), in Karpasia (mostly south of Ag. Andronikos, west of Gialousa, south-east of Gastria, west of Rizokarpaso, in Apostolos Andreas etc), in Kormakitis peninsula and some other areas such as the administrative areas of the following villages: Kokkinotrimithia, Kyra, Mammari, Gerolakkos, Aglantzia, in the Akama's peninsula and in the southern part of Akrotiri peninsula. [06] Terra Rosa soils: These soils are characterized of an intense reddish color (red soils) and are distinguished in those that were formed from kafkalas and those that were formed on hard limestone. Both terra rosa types drain well, are easily cultivated and quite productive when they have adequate depth. Terra Rosa on Kafkala: Mostly in coastal lowlands and on small plateaus. They always have granular structure and silty-clay texture. Other than coastal lowlands, this kind of terra rosa is found massively in Kokkinochoria area where it gave them their name (kokkino=red in Greek). It is also found in a relative wide area between Salamina-Spartharikou-Leykonikou-Styllon between Assia- Vatili, around Sinta, Souni, Zanatzia, Limassol suburbs, and many small areas of Karpasia. Terra Rossa on limestone: These soils resent similar characteristics as in the case of terra rosa on kafkala, with the only exception that they are more decalcified. They are mostly found in Pentadaktylos mountain range, between Ag. Napa and cape Greko and around cape Pyla. [07] Red-soils : These soils were mostly products of residual erosion and disintegration of igneous gravels-pebbles which they were transferred from the Troodos igneous complex. They are usually mixed with limestone deposits and look like terra rosa soils in terms of color, although they differ in their horizons. Redsoils are easily drained when they are deep enough. When irrigated they are very productive, although they are somewhat heavy. Red-soils cover a large area in the central plain between Nicosia-Afania-Nisou-Vuzakia-Petra-Morphou suburbs- Avlona-Kokkinotrimithia-Strovolos. [08] Gray-soils : Are mostly shallow soils that were developed in the areas of lavas of the Troodos igneous complex

25 [09] Humic-carbonate soils : These soils are divided to xeroretzines and retzines. Xerorentzines: They were formed from the chemical erosion of limestone, marl and other calcareous deposits. They are usually heavy soils, lack of organic substances, have grey or yellow-grey color, and they innclude the following categories: Xerorentzines formed on deposits of the Kythrea formation. This kind is found massively in Karpasia, in the northern and southern foothills of Pentadaktylos, southern up to Gerolako, Nicosia, Kythrea, Leykoniko and Trikomo. Xerorentzines formed on limestones, chalks, and other calcareous deposits. These take large areas in the coastal plain of Larnaca and west up to Kalo Chorio Larnaka's, Klaydia, Aglisides, Kofinou and Choirokoitia. They are also found in the area between the villages: Arsos (Larnaka's), Athienou, Potamia, Dali, Pera Chorio, Marki, Alampra, Lympia, Kosi and Petrophani. In Papho they are found only between the villages of Ag. Varvara, Timi and Phoinicas. Xerorentzines formed on pliocene marls. This kind is mosty found in the valley of Chrysochou, around Pissouri, south of Avdimou, north of Myrtou, around Nicosia and near the village Mora and south of Pyroiou. Rentzines: Found mostly in the eastern side of Pentadaktylos mountain range, the soils with a northern aspect are rich in organic matter, whereas those with a southern aspect are poorer in these substances. In general, retzines are more mature and productive soils than xeroretzines. [10] Immature-limestone soils : These soils were developed from the mechanical erosion of Pachna's and Leykava's limestone formations. Most vineyards of Limassol and Paphos are planted on this type of soils. The main characteristics of these soils is the white color, the gravel structure, and the permeability. They are easily soluble in water, have a dry surface and organic substances are few or none. These calcareous soils are massively found in the hilly area that extends towards east, south and west of the Troodos igneous complex. Between alluvial soils there are saline soils due to the high water level or the over-pumping of the underground water which in turn allows sea water to enter in it. Saline soils are found in Kouklia (Annochostos) and Surianochori area. The main element of that soils is sodium chloride (NaCl). The improvement of these soils can be achieved by artificial drainage, salts washout and plaster addition. [11] Immature-siliceous soils : These soils as natural, are found were rocks are abundant of silicone, namely the igneous rocks of Troodos mountainous complex. [12] Podzolic soils : These are soils with gray color in the surface, formed on immature-siliceous soils. They are found in Troodos areas, in altitudes over 1600m, which take a annual mean rainfall over 700mm. [13] Mamonia : The Mamonia Zone or Complex constitutes a diverse and structurally complex assemblage of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, ranging in

26 age from Middle Triassic to Upper Cretaceous ( Ma). These rocks, which are regarded as allochthonous in relation to the overlying autochthonous carbonate successions and the Troodos ophiolite rocks, were placed over and adjacent the Troodos ophiolite during the Maistrichtian. They occur only on the southern part of Cyprus with extensive outcrops at Pafos region. The stratigraphic classification of the Mamonia Complex poses problems, however three main groups can be recognized: 1) Volcanic (lavas) and sedimentary rocks (recrystallised limestones) of the Dhiarizos Group. 2) Pelagic sedimentary rocks (limestones, mudstones and quartzitic sandstones) of the Ayios Photios Group. 3) Metamorphic rocks (schists and marbles) of the Ayia Varvara Group. These rocks were derived from the metamorphism of the Dhiarizos Group.The soils that emerged have a deep red-grayish color and are not well for cultivation. In addition when whet, these soils tend to be sticky and are easily molded due to the large amounts of clay substances that also form a hard crust when they are dried up. These soils are only found in Paphos district where they cover most of the area. [14] Organic and Humic soils : These soils are found mostly inside forests, shrublands, under trees canopies where climate and micro organisms can act in the decomposition of plant-matter. In Cyprus these soils are well known as phytochomata and due to their richness in natural nutrient elements, are on great demand in gardening and in floriculture. Their color is black, brown or reddish-brown, depending the type of soil that turned into humic. [15] Aeolian or Wind-transported soils : They are deposits of aeolian origin which are consist of sea sand. Some times the sand is carried in great distances in the interior, thus creating dunes or sand-hills. The dunes are usually unstable soils, unsuitable for agriculture. They are found near the Morphou bay, south of Kalo Chorio (Morphou), in some coastal zones of Akrotiri peninsula, east of Amathunta, near Ag. Napa, in a narrow coastal stripe north of Salamina and up to Trikomo, around Ronna bay in Karpasia, and in a narrow dashed coastal zone between cape Elaia and Neta village. The dunes are found also in some other coastal areas of Kerynia and Karpasia