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1 شرح جالينوس للمقالة الا ولى من كتاب ا بقراط المسم ى ا فيذيميا GALEN COMMENTARY ON T HE FIRST BOOK OF HIPPOCRATES' EPIDEMICS

2 CONSPECT VS SIGLORV M ET COMPENDIORV M A = codex Ayasofya 3642; s. XIV E = Scorialensis Arab. 804; s. XIII E 2 = eiusdem codicis corrector primus E 3 = eiusdem codicis corrector secundus P = Parisinus Arab. 6734; s. XIII Gr. = versionis Graecae editio Wenkebach, Lipsiae et Berolini a Gr. ω = consensus codicum Graecorum Gr. M = Monacensis 231; s. XV vel XVI Gr. Q = Parisinus 2174; s. XVI Gr. V = Marcianus Venetus 1053; s. XV annot. in Hipp. Epid. I = annotationes in margine codicis Paris. Arab. 6734, fol. 1 r 19 r Buqrāṭ, Fuṣūl = Hippocratis Aphorismorum versionis Arabicae editio Tytler, Calcuttae a Buqrāṭ, Ṭabīʿat al-insān = Hippocratis De natura hominum versionis Arabicae editio Mattock et Lyons, Cantabrigiae a Buqrāṭ, Tadbīr = Hippocratis De diaeta acutorum versionis Arabicae editio Lyons, Cantabrigiae a Buqrāṭ, Taqdima = Hippocratis Prognosticorum versionis Arabicae editio Klamroth, a Ǧālīnūs, TIfīḏīmiyā II = Tafsīr Ǧālīnūs li-k. al-ifīḏīmiyā (al-maqāla al-ṯāniya), codex Scorialensis Arab. 804, fol. 43 v 124 r Ǧālīnūs, TIfīḏīmiyā III = Tafsīr Ǧālīnūs li-k. al-ifīḏīmiyā (al-maqāla al-ṯāliṯa), codex Scorialensis Arab. 804, fol. 124 r 182 v Kaskarī, Kunnāš = Kunnāš fī l-ṭibb li-yaʿqūb al-kaskarī editio Sezgin, Francofurti ad Moenum a et editio Šīrī, Beryti a. 1994

3 Conspectus siglorum 67 b. Maymūn, Fuṣūl = K. al-fuṣūl fī l-ṭibb li-mūsā ibn ʿUbayd Allāh ibn Maymūn editio Bos, Provo, Utah a Rāzī, Ḥāwī = K. al-ḥāwī fī l-ṭibb li-abī Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyāʾ al-rāzī editio, Ḥaydarābād a Rāzī, Šukūk = K. al-šukūk li-l-rāzī ʿalā kalām fāḍil al-aṭibbāʾ Ǧālīnūs fī l-kutub allatī tunsab ilayhi editio ʿAbd al-ġanī, Cahirae a b. Riḍwān, Fawāʾid = Taʿālīq ʿAlī ibn Riḍwān li-fawāʾid min kitāb Ibīḏīmiyā li-abuqrāṭ tafsīr Ǧālīnūs codex Cantabrigiensis Dd , fol. 127 v 197 r Ruhāwī, Adab = Adab al-ṭabīb taʾlīf al-ruhāwī editio Sezgin, Francofurti ad Moenum a. 1985

4 شرح جالينوس للمقالة الا ولى من كتاب ا بقراط المسم ى ا فيذيميا المقالة الا ولى [بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم. صل ى الله على جميع الا نبياء وخاتم الرسل وسل م G V 10,1, p تسليما.] المقالة الا ولى من تفسير جالينوس للمقالة الا ولى من كتاب ا بقراط المسم ى ا فيذيميا ترجمة حنين بن ا سحق. قال جالينوس: ا ن ا بقراط ا ن ما رسم هذا الكتاب «با فيذيميا» لا ن ج ل كلامه فيه واقتصاصه في الا مراض التي يقال لها «ا فيذيميا» وتا ويل ذلك «الوافدة» وهو المرض الواحد الذي يعرض لجماعة كثيرة في وقت واحد. 10 والفرق بين هذه الا مراض وبين الا مراض البلدي ة ا ن هذه الا مراض وا ن كانت ا ن ما تعرض في بلد من البلدان ا ل ا ا ن ها ا ن ما هي ا مراض تحدث لهم من سبب عارض. وا م ا الا مراض البلدي ة فهي ا مراض تصيب ا هل بلد واحد دائما حت ى تكون كالمحالفة لا هل البلد الذي تعرض فيه. وقد وصف ا بقراط في كتاب الماء والهواء والمواضع ا ي الا مراض تصيب ا هل بلد بلد من البلدان بحسب حالات بلدهم 15 فتلك الا مراض هي التي تسم ى البلدي ة. فا م ا في هذا الكتاب فا ن ا بقراط يصف كما قلت الا مراض التي تحدث في وقت واحد على ا هل مدينة با سرهم ا و ا هل بلد با سره. ويعم هاذين الجنسين من المرض ا ن هما عام ي ان شاملان لجماعة كثيرة ا عني ا ن المرض الواحد منها يصيب جماعة كثيرة من الناس. 4sq. بسم تسليما seclusi

5 GALEN COMMENTARY ON T HE FIRST BOOK OF HIPPOCRATES' EPIDEMICS PART I The first part of Galen's Commentary on the first book of the work of Hippocrates called Epidemics. 1 Translation by Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq. Galen said: Hippocrates entitled this work Epidemics because most of what he discusses and reports in it concerns the diseases called epidemic. It means visiting, that is, the same disease that affects a large group (of people) at the same time. The difference between these and local diseases 2 is that even when these diseases 3 occur in a certain location, they only affect people as a result of an accidental cause. Local diseases strike inhabitants of the same location all the time so that they are like a close companion of the inhabitants of the area where they occur. In the book Water, Air and Places 4 Hippocrates described what diseases the inhabitants of each region suffer from depending on the conditions at their location. These are the diseases called local. In this book Hippocrates describes, as I said, diseases that simultaneously affect all inhabitants of a city or an entire region. These two kinds of diseases 5 have in common that they are prevalent among and encompass a large group, that is, the same disease affects a large group of people. 1 Here and elsewhere (e.g. at 69,5, 85,11, 173,5 and 265,14) the title Epidemics is not translated into Arabic but transliterated as ifīḏīmiyā. 2 i.e. endemic diseases 3 i.e. epidemic diseases 4 i.e. De aere aquis locis 5 i.e. epidemic and endemic diseases

6 70 Galen, Commentary on the first book 5 وا م ا سائر الا مراض كل ها التي وا ن عرضت لجماعة كثيرة لم يعم الواحد منها الكثير لكن يخص كل واحد منها واحدا واحدا من تلك الجماعة فا ن ما تعرف بالا مراض «المختلفة». وهذه الا مراض كما ا ن حدوثها لواحد واحد من الناس خاص كذلك سببها خاص في كل واحد منهم. فا م ا الا مراض «العام ي ة» 5 فالحال فيها على خلاف ذلك وكما ا ن حدوثها عام كذلك سببها سبب عام ي. وا جناس الا سباب كل ها التي ترد على الا بدان فت حدث فيها الا مراض ثلاثة: واحد منها ما يتناول من طعام ا و شراب ومن غيرهما والثاني ما يفعل من الحركات وغيرها والثالث ما يلقى البدن من خارج من هواء ا و من غيره. والا مراض العام ي ة قد تحدث من جميع هذه الا سباب ا ل ا ا ن ا كثر حدوثها ا ن ما يكون من حال الهواء 10 المحيط بالا بدان وذلك ا ن حدوث المرض العام على ا هل مدينة معا ا و على ا هل بلد من طعام عام ليس مم ا يت فق كثيرا وكذلك ا يضا لا يكاد ا ن يكون المرض العام من شراب عام ا و من تعب مفرط عام. فا م ا الهواء المحيط با بداننا ا ذا ا فرط فيه الحر ا و البرد ا و اليبس ا و الرطوبة فا ن ه يكد ر ويفسد اعتدال مزاج الا بدان الذي هو محمود الصح ة. والا سباب الا خر ليس 15 تستولي على جميع الناس ولا هي مم ا تدوم ملاقاته للبدن ليلا ونهارا. فا م ا الهواء فا ن ه وحده دون سائر تلك يحيط بجميع الا بدان دائما وليس يقفك من اجتذابه بالاستنشاق فليس يمكن ا ذا تغي ر مزاجه ا ن تخلو الا بدان من ا ن تتغي ر بتغييره. ولذلك يكثر في الربيع كما وصف ا بقراط الدم ا ذ كان الدم ا عدل الا خلاط مزاجا وكان مزاج الربيع كذلك. ويكثر في الشتاء البلغم ا ذ كان البلغم ا برد 20 الا خلاط وكان الشتاء ا برد ا وقات السنة. وتكثر في الصيف المر ة الصفراء ا ذ كانت المر ة الصفراء ا سخن الا خلاط وكان الصيف ا سخن ا وقات السنة. وتكثر في cf. b. Riḍwān, Fawāʾid I 1: Cantabr. Dd , fol. 128 r 11 v 1 [وا جناس بالا بدان cf. b. Riḍwān, Fawāʾid I 1: Cantabr. Dd , fol. 128 v [فا م ا بتغييره 17 15

7 of Hippocrates Epidemics part I Prooemium All other diseases of which, even when they affect a large group, no single one prevails over the majority but each one affects each member of the community individually are known as miscellaneous 1 diseases. Just as they affect people individually, so each of these diseases also has an individual cause. The opposite applies to general 2 diseases: their occurrence is generalised, as is their cause. There are three types of causes which come into contact with bodies and generate diseases in them: the first is food, drink and other things one ingests; the second is physical activities and other things one undertakes; and the third is air or other things that the body encounters externally. General diseases may be generated by all of these causes, but they mostly result from the condition of the air surrounding the bodies. 3 For it is not often the case that a general disease that simultaneously affects the inhabitants of a city or region occurs because of shared food. Likewise, it also rarely happens that a general disease occurs because of shared drink or shared over-exertion. When, however, the air surrounding our bodies is excessively hot, cold, dry or wet, it disturbs and corrupts the balance of the bodies' mixture, which constitutes good health. Other causes do not have an impact on everyone and they do not affect the body constantly, night and day. Only the air, not these other causes, constantly surrounds all bodies, and one never stops drawing it in through breathing. It is therefore impossible for the bodies not to be changed along with it when its mixture changes. Hence, as Hippocrates described, blood is plentiful in spring because it has the most balanced mixture of humours, and the mixture of spring is the same. In winter phlegm is plentiful because it is the coldest humour and winter the coldest season. In summer yellow bile is plentiful because it is the warmest humour and 1 lit. diverse or varying diseases, i.e. sporadic (as opposed to epidemic and endemic) diseases 2 The adjective ʿāmmīya ( general or collective ) is used in this and the following clause to emphasise the correspondence between the ubiquity of the disease and its cause. 3 i.e. the weather or climate. The phrase condition of the air (ḥāl al-hawāʾ) or its abbreviation air (al-hawāʾ) will, depending on the context, often be translated as weather (condition/s), i.e. temperatures, precipitation and other such phenomena arising at a certain point in time, or climate / climatic condition/s, i.e. weather patterns over a longer period, especially the three long-term climatic conditions associated with particular patterns of disease (κατάστασις).

8 72 Galen, Commentary on the first book الخريف المر ة السوداء لبقايا ما يبقى فيه مم ا يحترق في الصيف من الخلطين الحار ين من ا خلاط البدن ا عني الدم والمر ة الصفراء. وعلى هذا القياس تكون الا مراض ا يضا التي تحدث في كل وقت من هذه الا وقات ا مراضا تخص ه دون سائر الا وقات مشاكلة للخلط الغالب فيه. 5 ولو كانت ا وقات السنة ا ن ما تول د هذه الا خلاط التي ذكرنا بسبب ا سمائها ل ما كانت ا ذا حالت وتغي رت عن مزاجها الخاص تول د غير تلك الا خلاط. ولم ا كان كل واحد منها ا ن ما كان يزيد فيه كل واحد من الا خلاط التي ذكرت بسبب مزاجه الخاص لا بسبب اسمه وجب ضرورة متى تغي ر مزاج الهواء المحيط بنا ا ن تتحو ل باستحالته الا خلاط. 10 وقد قال ا بقراط في كتاب الفصول: «ا ن ه متى حدث في وقت من ا وقات السنة في اليوم الواحد حر مر ة وبرد <مر ة> ا خرى فينبغي ا ن تتوق ع ا مراضا خريفي ة». وذلك يجب من قبل ا ن ه كما ا ن كل واحد من ا وقات السنة ا ذا بقي على مزاجه المخصوص به ا ن ما ي حدث من الا مراض ما يشاكل طبيعته كذلك ا ذا حال حت ى يخرج من طبيعته ا ن ما ي حدث من الا مراض ما يشاكل الحال الحادثة 15 له. فا ن قلت : «مال با ن جميع الا بدان لا يكون مرضها مرضا واحدا بعينه في كل واحد من ا وقات السنة» قلت: «ا ن السبب في ذلك ا ن الا بدان تختلف اختلافا ليس باليسير في طبائعها الا و ل وفي ا سنانها وفيما يتصر ف فيه ويتدب ر به ا صحابها». فلهذه الا سباب كل ها صار بعض الا بدان تسرع ا ليه الاستحالة من مزاج الوقت الحاضر وبعضها يثبت ويقاوم ذلك المزاج مد ة طويلة وبعضها لا يناله منه ضرر 20 بت ة وبعضها يعرض له المرض من الخطاء في التدبير قبل ا ن يناله الضرر من مزاج ذلك الوقت. فكما كانت الا بدان ا ذا نالها الضرر من الهواء ا ن ما يصيبها من 20,4sq. Hipp. Aphor. III 4: IV 486,11 13 L.: cf. Buqrāṭ, Fuṣūl [ا ن ه خريفي ة bis scr. E من sec. Buqrāṭ, Fuṣūl addidi 20 II مر ة E: scripsi 11 II ىنسب [بسبب 8

9 of Hippocrates Epidemics part I Prooemium summer the warmest season. In autumn black bile is plentiful because of remnants of the two warm humours of the body burned in summer, blood and yellow bile, which remain in it. The diseases that occur in each of these seasons are analogously also typical for this rather than any other season and resemble the humour that dominates during it. If the seasons were only to produce the humours we mentioned because of their names, 1 they would not generate any humours other than these (even) when they deviated and changed from their typical mixture. But since each humour I mentioned is only plentiful during each season because of its typical mixture, not its name, it necessarily follows that when the mixture of the air around us changes, the humours change accordingly. Hippocrates said in the Aphorisms: W hen it is hot at one time and cold at another on the same day in the same season, you should expect autumnal diseases. This is necessarily the case because just as each season that maintains its typical mixture causes diseases that resemble its nature, so too does it cause diseases which resemble its prevailing condition when its mixture changes so that it diverges from its (typical) nature. If you were to ask: W hy should all bodies not suffer from one and the same disease in each season?, I would say: Because bodies differ considerably in their primary natures, their ages and their owners' conduct and regimen. For all these reasons some bodies change quickly as a result of the mixture of the present season; some remain stable and resist this mixture for a long time; some do not suffer any harm at all from it; and some fall ill as a result of flaws in (their) regimen before they suffer harm from the mixture of the season. Just as bodies harmed by the weather are only struck by diseases that resemble its mixture, 2 so the 1 i.e. if each season automatically produced only the humour that it usually produces. Galen meant that the connection between season and prevailing humour is not mechanical and the occurrence of humours cannot be predicted based on the typical conditions during each season: under unseasonal climatic conditions unseasonal humours may dominate a body. 2 i.e the mixture of the weather (lit. the air )

10 74 Galen, Commentary on the first book 6 الا مراض ما يشاكل مزاجه كذلك ا ذا عرض لها المرض من التدبير يكون المرض الذي يعرض لها مشاكلا للخطاء فيه. فالذي يعلم هذه الا شياء يقدر ا ن يتقد م فيعلم ا ي الا مراض سيحدث في كل واحد من الا وقات بحسب مزاجه. وليس هذا فقط لكن ه يقدر ا ن يمنع من ا ن 5 يحدث على الا بدان با ن يتلط ف لا ن يجعل تدبيرها مضاد ا للمزاج الذي ا فرط على الهواء المحيط بها. وذلك واجب من قبل ا ن ه ا ن كانت صح ة الا عضاء الا ولى التي في البدن ا ن ما هي اعتدال مزاجها فا ن ه يفسد من قبل فساد مزاج الهواء ويبقى على حالها متى كان التدبير مضاد ا للمزاج المفرط الغالب على الهواء. فقد تبي ن من هذا ا ن قوينطس قد ا ساء في تفسيره لهذا الكتاب ولفصول من 10 كتاب الفصول لا بقراط افتتحها با ن قال: «وا م ا في ا وقات السنة فا ن ه ا ن كان الشتاء يابسا شمالي ا وكان الربيع مطيرا جنوبي ا فيجب ضرورة ا ن تحدث في الصيف حم يات حاد ة ورمد واختلاف دم». وذلك ا ن قوينطس اد عى ا ن هذه الا شياء ا ن ما ع ر فت بالتجربة فقط من غير ا ن يكون وجد قياسا في سبب يوجبها. وا و ل خطائه ا ن ه لم يعلم ا ن ا بقراط قد وصف ا سباب تلك الا شياء التي ذكرها في كتاب الفصول 15 <و>في كتابه في الماء والهواء والمواضع والثاني ا ن ه تجاوز وترك ا نفع ما يتعل م في هذا الباب. وذلك ا ن للتفسير فضيلتين: ا حداهما ا ن يحفظ معنى الرجل الذي يفس ر كلامه ولا يزول عنه فالا خرى ا ن يعل م من يقرا تفسيره ما ينتفع به. وقد ا فسد [وا م ا دم cf. b. Riḍwān, Fawāʾid I 1: Cantabr. Dd , fol. 128 v [فالذي الهواء 8 3 Hipp. Aphor. III 11: p. 402,1 3 Magdelaine = IV 490,2 4 L.: cf. Buqrāṭ, Fuṣūl 21,13 22, cf. b. Riḍwān, Fawāʾid I 1: Cantabr. Dd , fol. 128 v [وذلك به 17sq. Buqrāṭ, Fuṣūl قليل المطر E: يابسا E: correxi 11 لبقراط [لا بقراط E: correxi 10 ٯواىىس [قوينطس 9 12 post ورمد add. يابس Buqrāṭ, Fuṣūl قوانطس [قوينطس E: correxi 14 post الفصول hab. αὐτὸς αὖθις Gr. (6,14) addidi و 15

11 of Hippocrates Epidemics part I Prooemium disease that strikes them when they develop a disease caused by regimen resembles (the regimen's) unhealthy aspect. People who know these things can predict which disease will occur in each season depending on its mixture. Not only that, but they can prevent them from happening to the bodies by carefully arranging their regimen to be the opposite of the mixture which is excessive in the air surrounding them. This is necessary because if the health of the primary body parts consists in the balance of their mixture, it becomes corrupt when the mixture of the air is corrupt but maintains its condition when the regimen counteracts the excessive mixture that dominates the air. It is therefore evident that Quintus was wrong in his commentary on this book and on some aphorisms from Hippocrates' Aphorisms which he introduced by saying: Regarding the seasons, when winter is dry and northerly and spring rainy and southerly, it necessarily follows that acute fevers, eye disease and dysentery occur in summer. This is because Quintus claimed that these things are only known through experience without there being any reasoning about the cause that inevitably gives rise to them. His first error was that he was not aware that Hippocrates described the causes of the things he mentioned in the Aphorisms and in his book on Water, Air and Places. The second was that he passed by and left out the most useful (part) of this chapter's 1 teaching. For a commentary has two virtues: the first is that it preserves the thought of the man whose words it comments on and does not deviate from it. The second is that it teaches those who read the commentary what is useful for them. But Quin- 1 lit. in this chapter

12 76 Galen, Commentary on the first book 7 قوينطس هاتين الفضيلتين جميعا بتركه ا يجاب حدوث الا مراض التي ذكر ا بقراط ا ن ها تكثر في كل وقت واحد من ا وقات السنة على حال الهواء المحيط بالا بدان فيه. وا بقراط يريد ا ن حدوث تلك الا مراض واجب عن مزاج الوقت الذي تحدث فيه. ونحن لا نقدر ا ن نتقد م فنعلم ا ن تلك الا مراض ستحدث ولا ا ن نمنع من 5 حدوثها ولا ا ن نبرئها ا ذا حدثت دون ا ن نعلم الحال الحادثة في البدن من فساد مزاج الهواء. فبهذا الطريق قد نصل نحن ا ن نستخرج ونعرف قوى جميع حالات الهواء التي لم يذكرها ا بقراط معما ذكر. فمن ا راد ا ن يعظ م انتفاعه في الطب من قراءة هذا الكتاب فينبغي ا ن يقرا قبله [في] كتاب ا بقراط في طبيعة الا نسان وكتابه في الماء والهواء والمواضع وما 10 ذكره في كتاب الفصول من ا مر ا وقات السنة وقوى حالات الهواء الحار ة والباردة والرطوبة واليابسة ويضطر ا يضا ا ن يقرا مع ما ذكرنا كتابه في تقدمة المعرفة لا ن جميع ما يذكر في هذا الكتاب ا ن ما هو مبني على ما بي نه في هذه الكتب التي ذكرتها. ا م ا ا و ل الا مر فا ن صح ة الا عضاء الا ول التي في البدن ا ن ما هي اعتدال مزاج 15 الحار والبارد واليابس والرطب. وا م ا الثاني فا ن الربيع ا عدل ا وقات السنة مزاجا ا ذا كان باقيا على مزاجه الخاص ولذلك يكثر فيه الدم. والصيف ا زيد حر ا ويبسا من المقدار المعتدل والشتاء ا زيد رطوبة وبردا. والخريف مختلف المزاج والغالب عليه اليبس والبرد. ويكثر في كل واحد من هذه الا وقات واحد من الا خلاط كما قلت قبيل. 20 وقد نعلم من هذا معما ذكرت من تلك الكتب شيئا ثالثا ورابعا : ا م ا من كتاب طبيعة الا نسان فا ن السبب في المرض الواحد الذي يحدث لجماعة كثيرة في وقت seclusi: προαναγνῶναι τούτῳ في E: correxi 9 I وبقراط [وا بقراط E: correxi 3 ٯوابطس [قوينطس 1 وقت corr. ex واحد E: scripsi 18 II وتيسا [ويبسا βέλτιόν ἐστι τὸ Περὶ φύσεως ἀνθρώπου Gr. ω 16 E

13 of Hippocrates Epidemics part I Prooemium tus spoiled both virtues by ignoring that the diseases which Hippocrates said frequently appear during each individual season inevitably occur as a consequence of the condition of the air surrounding the bodies during it. Hippocrates, however, means that the occurrence of these diseases is inevitable due to the mixture of the season in which they occur. We cannot predict that these diseases will occur, prevent their occurrence or cure them when they occur without knowing the condition that prevails in the body based on the corruption of the mixture of the air. With this method, 1 however, we are in a position to deduce and learn the powers of all the climatic conditions Hippocrate s did not mention in addition to those he did mention. People who want to draw an even greater medical benefit from reading this book should read before it Hippocrates' book on The Nature of Man, his Water, Air and Places and what he wrote in the Aphorisms about the seasons and the powers of hot, cold, wet and dry climates, and in addition to what we have mentioned they also need to read his Prognostic, because everything he discusses in this book 2 is based on what he explained in the books I have mentioned. The first point is that the health of the primary body parts consists in the balance of the mixture of hot, cold, dry and wet. The second is that spring is the most balanced season in (terms of ) mixture when it maintains its characteristic mixture, and blood therefore increases during it. Summer is hotter and dryer than the balanced measure and winter is wetter and colder. The mixture of autumn varies, its dominant (qualities) are dryness and coldness. As I said before, one of the humours increases during each season. Apart from what I have mentioned, we learn a third and a fourth thing about this from these books: from The Nature of Man that the air is the cause of the same disease that affects a large group at the same time and in the same area contrary to 1 i.e. with the method of associating diseases with changes in the body's mixture that are caused by climatic conditions 2 i.e. the Epidemics

14 78 Galen, Commentary on the first book واحد وفي بلد واحد على خلاف ما اعتاد ا هل ذلك البلد ا ن ما هو الهواء وا م ا من كتاب تقدمة المعرفة فنعلم ما قو ة كل واحد من العلامات التي تكون منها تقدمة المعرفة في كيفي ة ما تدل عليه من خير ا و شر وفي مقداره في الخير ا ن كان خيرا وفي الشر ا ن كان شر ا. 8 5 وا نا ا سا لك ا ي ها القارئ لهذا الكتاب ا ن تكون حافظا بجميع ما ذكرت حت ى يكون حاضرا لوهمك كيما يسهل عليك فهم ما نصف. وا حب منك ا ن تكون قد ا علمت نفسك خاص ة في قراءة كتاب الماء والهواء والمواضع حت ى تعلم ا ن ي لم ا تخر ص القياس في الا سباب الموجبة لحدوث الا مراض عن حالات الهواء وا ن ي ا ن ما ا تبعت ما وصفه ا بقراط في ذلك. 10 ولست ا رى مع هذا ا ن ا دع وضع كلام ا بقراط بلفظه متى احتجت ا ليه في كل موضع ا حتاج ا ليه فيه. ومن ذلك ا ن ي في هذا الموضع قبل ا ن ا بتدئ بتفسير كلام ا بقراط قد را يت ا ن ا ضع كلاما قاله ا بقراط في كتابه في طبيعة الا نسان. ا ريد به ا ن ا بي ن وا صح ح ا ن ا بقراط هو الذي قسم ا جناس الا مراض القسمة التي وضعتها وا ن الهواء هو السبب في المرض الواحد الذي يحدث لجماعة كثيرة في 15 بلد واحد على خلاف ما اعتادوا. وهذا هو قول ا بقراط في ذلك بلفظه: «فا م ا الا مراض فمنها ما يكون من التدبير ومنها ما يكون من الهواء الذي باستدخاله نعيش. وينبغي ا ن نتعر ف كل واحد من هذين الجنسين من الا مراض بما ا صف وهو ا ن ه متى اعترى مرض واحد عد ة كثيرة في وقت واحد فينبغي ا ن نوجب السبب في ذلك لا عم الا شياء وا ولاها با ن يكون Hipp. De nat. hom. 2: CMG I 1,3, p. 188,10 190,3: cf. Buqrāṭ, Ṭabīʿat al-insān [فا م ا مرضه 80, ,13 16,11 Buqrāṭ, Ṭabīʿat al-insān يحدث عن E: يكون من bis scr. E 16 في E: correxi 12 I بقراط [ا بقراط 9 Buqrāṭ, Ṭabīʿat باستنشاقه نحيا :E باستدخاله نعيش Buqrāṭ, Ṭabīʿat al-insān يحدث عن :E يكون من 17 al-insān Buqrāṭ, Ṭabīʿat al-insān اعترض E: اعترى 18

15 of Hippocrates Epidemics part I Prooemium what the inhabitants of that area are accustomed to; and from the Prognostic we learn what the capacity of each sign on which we base predictions is in (terms of ) the quality it indicates, whether beneficial or harmful, and in (terms of ) the extent of the benefit if it is beneficial and of the harm if it is harmful. I ask you, the reader of this book, to commit everything I said to memory so that it is present in your mind and it is easy for you to understand what we discuss. I also want you to inform yourself, especially by reading Water, Air and Places, so that you know that I have not fabricated the reasoning about the causes that inevitably give rise to diseases based on climatic conditions but that I have merely followed what Hippocrates said about this. I nevertheless do not think that I should abstain from quoting Hippocrates' words verbatim whenever and wherever I need to. I therefore think that at this point, before I begin to comment on Hippocrates' text, I should quote something Hippocrates said in his Nature of Man. I want to clarify and confirm that it was Hippocrates who divided the types of diseases in the manner I set out and that the climate is the cause when the same disease affects a large group in the same area contrary to what they are accustomed to. This is what Hippocrates said about this in his own words: Some diseases are caused by regimen and some by the air we live on by inhaling it. We need to distinguish between each of these two kinds of diseases in the manner I describe: when the same disease strikes a large number (of people) at the same time, we need to identify as its necessary cause the most common thing and the most natural for

16 80 Galen, Commentary on the first book جميع الناس يستعمله وذلك هو الهواء الذي نستنشقه. فا ن ه من البي ن ا ن تدبير كل واحد من الناس ليس هو السبب في المرض ا ذا كان قد اشتمل على الكل شاب هم وشيخهم وا ناثهم وذكورهم وشارب الخمر منهم وشارب الماء والمغتذي بسويق الشعير منهم والمغتذي بالخبز ومن تعبه يسير منهم ومن تعبه كثير فليس 5 ا ذا التدبير هو السبب في المرض ا ذ كان تدبير الناس مختلفا متصر فا على جميع ا نحائه ثم كان المرض الذي يحدث واحدا بعينه. فا م ا متى كانت الا مراض التي تحدث في وقت واحد مختلفة فبي ن ا ن التدبير الذي يستعمله كل واحد من الناس الذين يمرضون هو السبب في مرضه». ففي هذا الكلام قد ا وجب ا بقراط ا ن السبب في جميع الا مراض التي تحدث 10 لجماعة كثيرة معا في بلد واحد على خلاف ما اعتادوا ا ن ما هو مزاج الهواء المحيط بهم. فا م ا في المقالة الثانية من هذا الكتاب حيث قال ا ن ا هل الموضع الذي يقال له «ا ينس» لم ا ا كلوا الحبوب في جوع ا صابهم حدث بهم ضعف في الرجلين ولم ا ا كلوا الكرسن ة ا صابهم وجع في الركبتين فلم يجعل السبب في المرض الذي وصف مزاج الهواء لكن ه جعله التدبير. وقد يمكن ا ن ي حدث شرب 15 الماء الرديء في وقت من الا وقات مرضا عام ي ا وقد بلغنا ا ن ه حدث ذلك لا هل عساكر. وكذلك ا يضا قد يعرض ذلك لسبب طبيعة الموضع الذي ينزله ا هل عسكر فيطول مقامهم فيه ا ذا كان في ذلك الموضع ا و قريب منه ا م ا ا جام ونقائع وا م ا Ǧālīnūs, Hipp. Epid. II 4,3: V 126,4 L.: CMG V 10,1, p. 338,32 36 Pfaff: cf. [فا م ا الركبتين TIfīḏīmiyā II, lemma IV 3: Scor. arab. 804, fol. 100 v post الكل hab. ἑξῆς Gr. (8,5) 3 post وذكورهم hab. ὁμοίως Gr. ا ذ (8,6) 5 E: ا ذا Buqrāṭ, Ṭabīʿat به [في al-insān 7 E: sec. Buqrāṭ, Ṭabīʿat al-insān correxi الناس E: ا ولائك Buqrāṭ, Ṭabīʿat al-insān E: ἐν انس [ا ينس E: correxi 12 الذي [التي E: sec. Buqrāṭ, Ṭabīʿat al-insān correxi 9 الذي [الذين 8 Αἴνῳ add. Gr.: correxi

17 of Hippocrates Epidemics part I Prooemium everyone to have use of, and that is the air we breathe. It is obvious that the regimen of each individual cannot be the cause of a disease that involves everyone, young and old, females and males, people who drink wine and people who drink water, people who eat barley porridge and people who eat bread, people who do little hard work and people who do a lot. Hence, it is not regimen that causes the disease because people's regimens are diverse and free in every respect while the disease that occurs is one and the same. But when diseases that occur at the same time are varied, it is clear that the regimen followed by each person who falls ill is the cause of their disease. In this passage Hippocrates established that the cause of all diseases that affect a large group collectively in the same area contrary to what they are accustomed to is the mixture of the air that surrounds them. But in the second book of this work, where he reported that when the inhabitants of a place called Aenus ate seeds during a famine, their legs grew weak and when they ate vetches, they suffered pain in the knees, he did not identify the climate but regimen as the cause of the disease he described. It is (also) possible that drinking foul water at a certain time brings about a general disease, and we were told that this happened to some soldiers. This could equally well happen because of the nature of the location where soldiers camp and stay for an extended time if by or close to this location there are

18 82 Galen, Commentary on the first book 9 وهدات يخرج منها بخار رديء قت ال. وهذه الا سباب ا ن ما ت حدث الا مراض بسبب ما يؤث ر في الهواء ويفسده فهي على هذا القياس محصورة في القول الذي تقد م. وا م ا الا مراض من هذا الجنس الذي يحدث من الا طعمة والا شربة فقليل ما يعرض وتعر فها يكون با سهل الوجوه فهذا ما وصفه ا بقراط في كتاب طبيعة الا نسان. 5 وقد ذكر في كتابه في الماء والهواء والمواضع في مواضع كثيرة منه ا شياء تدل ك على ا ن قسمته للا مراض القسمة التي وصفت. ولولا كراهتي للتطويل لوصفت كلامه في موضع موضع من ذلك الكتاب. وليس ينبغي ا ن نذهب عليك من كلامه ا ن ه ا ن ما يعني بالا مراض البلدي ة الا مراض التي تكثر في بلد من البلدان في جميع الا وقات فيعم كل واحد جماعة كثيرة مثل الموتان. فا ن الموتان ا يضا من 10 الا مراض العام ي ة كما دل على ذلك ا بقراط في كتابه في تدبير الا مراض الحاد ة بقول قاله فيه دل فيه على ا ن الموتان ا ن ما هو صنف من ا صناف المرض العام الذي يحدث لجماعة كثيرة في بلد واحد على خلاف ما اعتاد ا هل ذلك البلد وهو ا ذا كان ذلك المرض خبيث جد ا مهلك. فا ن هذا الصنف من الا مراض الذي يعرض لكثير في بلد واحد في وقت واحد 15 على خلاف ما اعتاد ا هل ذلك البلد ا ن ما هو نوع من المرض العام. وا ن المرض الذي يوضع في القسمة با زاء المرض العام هو المرض الخاص الذي يعرض لكل واحد من الناس منه خلاف ما يعرض لغيره وهو الذي سم يناه المرض «المختلف». فهذه الا مراض على هذا قسمها وسم اها. وا م ا الموتان فجميع الناس 12sq. cf. b. Riḍwān, Fawāʾid I 1: Cantabr. Dd , fol. 128 v [الموتان مهلك post وهدات hab. τῶν Χαρωνείων Gr. (8,23) 4 post الا نسان hab. ἐν κοινότατον Gr. (9,3sq.; cf. Wenkebach, Das Proömium, p. 17) 7 post عليك hab. τοῦ χειμῶνος Gr. (9,6 14; cf. Wenkebach, Das Proömium, p. على 18 20) 10 in marg. add. E 3 post الحاد ة hab. ὅταν συμπάντων Gr. E: correxi مهلك ا [مهلك E: correxi خبيثا [خبيث (9,20 23) 13

19 of Hippocrates Epidemics part I Prooemium fens and swamps or chasms which give off bad, lethal vapours. These causes bring about diseases because something affects the air and corrupts it, and they are accordingly covered by what was said before. But diseases of this kind that are caused by food and drink rarely occur and they are very easily recognised. This is what Hippocrates discussed in The Nature of Man. He frequently mentioned in his book on Water, Air and Places things that tell you that his classification of diseases is the one I have described. If I did not dislike verbosity, I would describe what he said in each (relevant) passage from that book. We should not, however, fail to mention to you from his discussion that he means by local diseases those that frequently arise in a (particular) area at all times and each involves a large group, for example the plague. The plague is also a general disease, as Hippocrates pointed out in a remark he made in his book on Regimen in Acute Diseases. He indicated in it that the plague is a kind of general disease that strikes a large group in the same area contrary to what the inhabitants of that area are accustomed to and that, if it is (indeed) this disease, it is very malignant and fatal. This kind of disease, which strikes many people in the same area at the same time contrary to what the inhabitants of this location are accustomed to, is a variety of general diseases. The diseases that are in the classification juxtaposed to general diseases are individual diseases, in which each individual suffers from a disease different from the others. They are what we have called miscellaneous diseases. He classified and named these diseases in this manner. As for the plague, everyone

20 84 Galen, Commentary on the first book 10 يعلمون ا ن ه مرض قت ال وبهذا الاسم يسم ونه ويلجؤون كثيرا في شفائهم منه ا لى الله. وقد يسم ى المرض الذي يشتمل على جماعة كثيرة في وقت واحد في بلد واحد على خلاف ما اعتاد ا هله كما قلت قبيل «ا بيذيمي» بسبعة ا حرف 5 ويسم ى ا يضا «ا بيذيمين» بثمانية ا حرف. فينبغي ا ن تكون ذاكرا ل ما وصفنا من هذا عندما نذكر فيما بعد وتعلم ا ن الا مراض <منها> ا مراض تعم كثيرا من الناس ومنها ا مراض تخص واحدا من الناس وا ن الا مراض العام ي ة منها ما يخص ا هل بلد واحد ويقال لها «بلدي ة» ومنها ما لا يخص ا هل بلد واحد وا ن ا صعب هذه الا مراض ا مراض الموتان 10 وا ن عل ة ا مراض الموتان ا ن ما هي حال تحدث للهواء مثل سائر الا مراض التي يقال لها «ا فيذيميا». ولذلك وصف ا بقراط في هذا الكتاب حالات من حالات الهواء حدث عنها موتان مثل الحال التي ذكرها في المقالة الثالثة من هذا الكتاب لا ن المرض العارض في الموتان هو جنس الا مراض العام ي ة لا هل بلد واحد في وقت واحد على خلاف عادتهم. 15 فهذا ما كان ينبغي ا ن نقد مه قبل تفسيري لشيء شيء مم ا قاله ا بقراط. وا نا مقبل على تفسير كلام ا بقراط بعد ا ن ا قد م ذكر شيء قد كتبته في كثير من كتبي وهو ا ن ي حثثت من يريد تعل م الطب ا ن يرتاض في الا شياء الخاص ي ة مم ا يحس فيتقد م فيعلمها علما. وقد قال ا صحاب التجارب ا ن هذه الا شياء الجزئي ة هي ا صل معرفة الا شياء الكل ي ة وا ن المعاني الصحيحة ا ن ما هي المعاني التي كان 1sq. الله [ويلجؤون cf. b. Riḍwān, Fawāʾid I 1: Cantabr. Dd , fol. 128 v 13sq. 2 post الله hab. οὐ ἦν Gr. (9,30 10,6; cf. Wenkebach, Das Proömium, p. منها 21) 7 addidi: τῶν δὲ κοινῶν τὰ μὲν ἔνδημά Gr. ω امراضا [ا مراضI E: correxi post الناس hab. ἃ κοινά Gr. (10,12) 8 post الناس hab. τὰ προσαγορευόμενα Gr. (10,13) 16 post مقبل hab. μετὰ ταῦτα Gr. (10,22) 18 post يحس hab. ὡς αὐτούς Gr. (10,26)

21 of Hippocrates Epidemics part I Prooemium knows that it is a fatal disease, and they give it this name 1 and often take refuge in God for their recovery from it. A disease which strikes a large group at the same time in the same location contrary to what its inhabitants are accustomed to is, as I have said shortly before, called ibīḏīmī with seven letters but also ibīḏīmīn with eight letters. You need to remember what we said about this for the following discussion and know that some diseases involve many people and some are specific to a particular person; that some general diseases are specifically associated with the inhabitants of one location they are called local and some are not specifically associated with the inhabitants of one location; that plagues are the most serious of the latter; and that, as with other diseases that are called epidemic, the cause of plagues is the climate. Hippocrates therefore discussed in this book some of the climatic conditions which cause plague, for example the condition he mentions in the third book of this work, because the disease that appears during plague is a type of general disease of the inhabitants of the same area at the same time contrary to what is normal for them. This is what we had to explain first before commenting in detail on what Hippocrates said. I shall begin commenting on Hippocrates' text after first mentioning something I have written in many of my books, namely that I urged those who intend to study medicine to gain experience with the details they observe 2 and to become thoroughly familiar with them beforehand. The empiricists claimed that these details are the basis for knowing universal things and that the only reliable concepts are those based on experience. Even if we assume that many concepts are derived by 1 i.e. the name plague (mawtān), a cognate of death (mawt) 2 i.e. through sense perception (as opposed to theoretical reasoning)

22 86 Galen, Commentary on the first book 11 قوامها بالتجربة. وا ن ه وا ن كان نظن ا ن كثيرا من المعاني استخرجت بالقياس فا ن حقيقتها ا ن ما تتعر ف بالتجربة وبها تصح وتثبت. وعلى هذا الطريق يكون تصديقنا ل ما بي نه ا يفرخس في مقدار عظم الشمس والقمر وب عدهما من الا رض فا صح شهادة ما يحدث من الكسوف في وقت بعد وقت عليه. 5 فا ذا كان قد تبي ن من البراهين الهندسي ة يزداد تا كيدا وصح ة ا ذا شهدت عليه الا شياء الجزئي ة المحسوسة. فكم بالحري ما يستخرج في الطب بالقياس من الا مور العام ي ة ا ذا هو ج ر ب واختبر بعواقب الا مور الجزئي ة تكون معرفته ا صح وا ك د. ونحن مبي نون ا ن ذلك يكون في هذا الكتاب على هذا المثال الذي وصفت. قال ا بقراط: كان بثاسس في الخريف فيما بين الاستواء ونوء الثري ا ا مطار كثيرة 10 متواترة لي نة مع جنوب. قال جالينوس: ا ن ي سا بي ن فيما بعد ا ن طبيعة البلد مم ا قد ينتفع بمعرفته في معرفة الا مراض الحادثة لا هل ذلك البلد با سره على خلاف ما اعتادوا. وا م ا الا ن فا ن ي ا فس ر ا و لا لفظ ا بقراط في قوله «ما بين الاستواء ونوء الثري ا». فا قول ا ن الاستواء يكون في السنة مر تين وللثري ا ا يضا نوا ن. وقد دل ا بقراط 15 با لحاقه في قوله «في الخريف» ا ي الاستوائين عنى وا ي النوئين وذلك ا ن ا حد الاستوائين يكون في الربيع وذلك الاستواء هو ابتداء الربيع في بلدنا ا ي هذا الذي نسكنه وا م ا ا خر الربيع وانقضاؤه فهو طلوع الثري ا. فا م ا الاستواء الا خر فيكون في الخريف وفيه يكون ا يضا غروب الثري ا. 6sq. وا ك د [ما cf. b. Riḍwān, Fawāʾid I 1: Cantabr. Dd , fol. 128 v في الخريف A: scripsi بتاسيس P: ىثاسس E: sine punctis [بثاسس sine punctis E: scripsi 9 [ا يفرخس 3 E A: om. P فيما E P: om. متواترة A 10 E P: متوالية A 18 post الثري ا hab. οὐδὲν πλειάδα Gr. (11,23 12,2)

23 of Hippocrates Epidemics part I Prooemium 1a reasoning, however, their validity is only established through experience and they are proven true and confirmed by it. This is how we confirm Hipparchus' demonstration of the size 1 of the sun and the moon and their distance from the earth: the best evidence for it comes from eclipses that occur time and again. Hence, when explanations are given on the basis of geometrical proofs, they become more certain and correct when confirmed by details perceptible through the senses. How much more sound and certain are (concepts) deduced in medicine by reasoning from general principles when they are tested and examined on the basis of details! We shall explain that this work also follows the model I have described. I 1a Hippocrates said [I 1: II 598,4sq. L. = I 180,3sq. Kw.]: In autumn, between the equinox and the heliacal setting 2 of the Pleiades, there was much continuous and gentle rain in Thasos together with southerly winds. Galen said: I shall clarify below that knowledge of a country's nature is useful for knowing the diseases that strike all inhabitants of that area contrary to what they are accustomed to. At this point I shall first explain Hippocrates' choice of words when he said between the equinox and the setting of the Pleiades. I say that the equinox occurs twice a year and that the Pleiades also have two heliacal dates. 3 By adding in autumn to his remark, Hippocrates indicated which of the two equinoxes and heliacal dates he meant because one equinox takes place in spring, and this equinox marks the beginning of spring in our country, that is, the one we inhabit, whereas the rise of the Pleiades marks the end and conclusion of spring. The other equinox takes place in autumn, as does the setting of the Pleiades. 1 lit. of the measure of the size 2 The astronomical term nawʾ (lit. setting ) denotes the heliacal rise and setting of stars and constellations, in this case of the Pleiades. 3 i.e. their heliacal rise and setting

24 88 Galen, Commentary on the first book وغروب الثري ا يكون في بلدنا من بعد الاستواء الخريفي بنحو من خمسين يوما. 12 وينبغي ا ن تعلم ا ن الاستوائين والمنقلبين يكون كل واحد منهما في وقت واحد في كل بلد. فا م ا طلوع الكواكب وغروبها فيختلفان في البلدان المختلفة حت ى يكونا في كل واحد من البلدان في غير الوقت الذي يكونان فيه في غيره وليس يعم 5 طلوع الكواكب وغروبها ا ل ا من كان تحت دائرة واحدة من الدوائر الموازية لمعد ل النهار. ومن ا عظم ما يحتاج ا ليه ضرورة في هذا الغرض الذي ا ي اه قصدنا كل ه ا ن نعلم طلوع وغروب كل واحد من الكواكب ا و من جماعة الكواكب في البلدان التي نريد علاج الطب فيها وذلك لا ن بها يكون تحديد ا وقات السنة. ومن ذلك ا ن في 10 البلدان التي تمي ز عليها الدائرة الموازية لمعد ل النهار التي تمر على البلد الذي يقال له «اللسبنطس» ا م ا ا و ل الربيع فهو الاستواء الذي يكون فيه وا م ا انقضاؤه فهو طلوع الثري ا وذلك الوقت بعينه هو ابتداء الصيف وا م ا انقضاء الصيف وابتداء الخريف فهو طلوع السماك الرامح وطلوعه يكون قبل الاستواء الخريفي بنحو من اثني عشر يوما وا م ا انقضاء الخريف وا و ل الشتاء فهو غروب الثري ا. 15 وا ن ي لا علم ا ن ك تستعجب وتبحث عن السبب الذي دعاني ا لى ترك ذكر طلوع الكوكب المشهور الذي يطلع في الصيف في كلامي هذا وهو الكوكب الذي ي عر ف «بالشعرى العبور». وقد يسم يه قوم «بالكلب» بطريق الاستعارة للاسم المشتمل على جملة الكواكب الذي هو واحد منها. فا ن الكلب بالحقيقة ا ن ما هو جماعة تلك الكواكب التي في تلك الصورة وا م ا الشعرى فهو واحد من تلك b. cf. [ا م ا الثري ا cf. b. Riḍwān, Fawāʾid I 1: Cantabr. Dd , fol. 129 r [وغروب يوما 1 Riḍwān, Fawāʾid I 1: Cantabr. Dd , fol. 128 v r 6 6 post النهار hab. καλοῦσι ἑσπέριον Gr. اللسىطس [اللسبنطس (12,8 15) 11 E: correxi

25 of Hippocrates Epidemics part I 1a The setting of the Pleiades takes place in our country about fifty days after the autumnal equinox. You need to know that the two equinoxes and solstices each take place at the same time in every country. The rise and setting of the stars, however, vary in different countries so that they take place at a different time in different countries. 1 The rise and setting of the stars only coincide for people who are on the same latitude. 2 It is necessarily of the highest importance for the purpose we have in mind that we know the rise and setting of each star or group of stars 3 at the locations where we want to practise medicine because they determine the seasons. For example, in locations that are on the same latitude 4 that passes through the place called Hellespontos the beginning of spring coincides with the vernal equinox and its end with the rise of the Pleiades. The same date marks the beginning of summer. The end of summer and the beginning of autumn coincide with the rise of Arcturus. It rises approximately twelve days before the autumnal equinox. The end of autumn and the beginning of winter coincide with the setting of the Pleiades. I know that you are surprised and wonder about the reason which led me to omit from my account the rise of the well-known star that rises in summer, that is, the star known as Sirius. Some call it Dog Star, borrowing the name of the entire constellation of which it forms part. The Dog is in fact the combination of the stars that make up this constellation, and Sirius is one of those stars, located at the heart 1 lit. they take place at a different time than in others 2 lit. circle parallel to the equator 3 i.e. constellation 4 lit. circle parallel to the equator

26 90 Galen, Commentary on the first book 13 الكواكب موضوع على قلب الكلب. وطلوع هذا الكوكب هو ابتداء جزء من الصيف ي عر ف «بوقت الفاكهة». ومن قسم السنة على سبعة ا وقات يجعل هذا الجزء الا و ل من الصيف ما بين طلوع الثري ا وبين طلوع الشعرى العبور. ويجعل هذا الجزء الثاني من الصيف وهو 5 الوقت الذي قلت ا ن ه ي عر ف «بوقت الفاكهة» ما بين ذلك الوقت وبين طلوع السماك الرامح. وهؤلاء القوم يقسمون الشتاء ا يضا ا لى ثلاثة ا قسام فيجعلون القسم الا وسط منه ما يلي المنقلب الشتوي ويجعلون القسم الذي قبل هذا من الشتاء «وقت الزراعة» ويجعلون الوقت الذي بعد الوقت الا وسط «وقت الغروس». وقد نجد ا يضا في كتاب الا سابيع الذي قد ي نحله ا بقراط السنة قد ق سمت 10 بسبعة ا قسام. فت رك كل واحد من الخريف والربيع على حاله فلم ي قس م وق سم الشتاء بثلاثة ا قسام والصيف بقسمين. وقد ينتفع بهذه القسمة على ما سنبي ن فيما بعد. وينتفع ا يضا بقسمة السنة ا لى ا وقات الا ربعة كما سنبي ن ذلك ا يضا بل لا ينبغي ا ن نقول ا ن ا سنبي ن ذلك لكن نقول ا ن ا بقراط قد بي ن ذلك حيث ا وجب ا ن 15 غلبات الا خلاط وا نواع الا مراض وا صناف مزاج الهواء التي هي ا صل غلبات الا خلاط وا صناف الا مراض ا ربعة ا صناف. وذلك ا ن ه وا ن قسم قاسم المد ة التي فيما بين طلوع الثري ا وبين طلوع السماك الرامح قسمين فا ن ه على حال قد تعم تلك المد ة كل ها ا ن الهواء فيها ا جف وا سخن من المزاج المعتدل. وكذلك ا يضا قد يعم الشتاء كل ه ا ن ه ا برد وا رطب من المزاج المعتدل وا ن ق سم بثلاثة ا قسام. 20 فا صناف اختلاف المزاج العظيمة العام ي ة تقسم ا وقات السنة با ربعة وا صناف اختلافه اليسيرة الخاص ي ة في كل واحد من تلك الا صناف العام ي ة في الكثرة والقل ة cf. b. Riḍwān, Fawāʾid I 1: Cantabr. Dd , fol. 129 r v 11 [ومن الغروس post II ا يضا hab. πρότερον Gr. (13,12) 20 post با ربعة hab. ἤτοι ὀνομάζειν Gr. (13,21sq.)

27 of Hippocrates Epidemics part I 1a of the Dog. The rise of this star marks the beginning of the part of summer known as fruit season. Those who divide the year into seven seasons designate the interval between the rise of the Pleiades and the rise of Sirius as the first part of summer. As the second part of summer, that is, the time I said is known as fruit season, they designate the interval between that time and the rise of Arcturus. These people also divide winter into three parts: they designate the period following the winter solstice as the middle part; the part of winter preceding it as sowing season; and the period following the middle part as planting season. We also find that the year is divided into seven parts in the Book of Sevens, 1 which is falsely ascribed to Hippocrates. Autumn and spring were left unchanged and undivided, 2 but winter was divided into three parts and summer into two. This division can be utilised in the manner we shall explain below. The division of the year into four seasons can also be useful, as we shall also explain, but we do not need to say that we shall explain this. Rather, we only say that Hippocrates demonstrated it when he determined that the (number of ) the dominant (patterns of ) humours, 3 types of diseases and varieties of mixtures of the air which are the source of the dominant (patterns of ) of humours 4 and types of diseases is four. This is because even if someone were to divide the period between the rise of the Pleiades and the rise of Arcturus into two parts, this period as a whole would still generally be characterised by dryer and warmer air than the balanced mixture. Similarly, winter would generally be characterised by being colder and wetter than the balanced mixture, even if it were divided into three parts. Hence, the major, general kinds of differences in mixture divide the seasons into four but the minor, specific kinds of differences in each of these general ones in (terms of ) abundance and scarcity divide summer into two parts and winter into 1 i.e. the pseudo-hippocratic De septimanis/de hebdomadibus 2 lit. each of autumn and spring was left unchanged and was not divided 3 lit. the dominances of humours 4 lit. the dominances of humours

28 92 Galen, Commentary on the first book تقسم الصيف بقسمين وتقسم الشتاء بثلاثة ا قسام. والسبب في قسمة هذين الوقتين دون الوقتين الا خرين من ا وقات السنة طول مد ة كل واحد منهما. وذلك لا ن الزمان الذي بين طلوع الثري ا وبين طلوع السماك الرامح يكون ا ربعة ا شهر والزمان الذي بين غروب الثري ا وبين الاستواء الربيعي يكون ا كثر من ا ربعة ا شهر وا م ا 5 زمان الربيع فليس يتم شهرين فلذلك بالواجب ترك فلم يقسم. وكذلك ا يضا زمن 14 الخريف وذلك ا ن زمان الخريف وا ن كان ا طول من زمان الربيع ا ذ كان شهرين فا ن ه على حال ا نقص كثيرا من مد ة زمن الصيف والشتاء. فاكتف من ي بقولي لك ما قلت من هذا مر ة واحدة واح ف ظ ه عن ي ا ح ض ر ه ذهنك في جميع ما يتلوه من قولي حت ى تقدر بسهولة ا ن تعرف هذه الا وقات من 10 الشهور في كل بلد ا ذ كانت الشهور عند ا هل البلدان والا مم المختلفة مختلفة. ولو كانت الشهور تجري في جميع البلدان على ا مر واحد منتظم ل ما احتاج ا بقراط ا ن يذكر «ا نواء الثري ا» والسماك والشعرى «والاستوائين» والمنقلبين لكن كان يكفيه ا ن يقول ا ن مزاج الهواء يصير في ا و ل شهر كذا وكذا بحال كذا وكذا كا ن ه قال في المثل ا ن مزاج الهواء يصير في الشهر الذي يقال «ديس» وهو 15 تشرين الا خ ر بحال كذا وكذا. ولم ا كان استعمال ا هل البلدان المختلفة لا سماء الشهور وحسابها مختلفا كان ا بقراط لو ذكر اسم هذا الشهر الذي سم يته قبيل ا عني ديس ل ما كان يعرفه ا ل ا ا هل ماقيدونيا فقط لا ن ه اسم شهر من شهورهم وكان يجهله ا هل ا ثينية وسائر ا هل البلدان الا خر. وا بقراط يقصد ا ن ينفع بعلمه ا هل كل بلد وكل ا م ة. فكان الا جود على 20 حسب غرضه ا ن يحد الا وقات بالاستواء والانقلاب ا مران يعم ان العالم كل ه. وا م ا 9 14 cf. b. Riḍwān, Fawāʾid I 1: Cantabr. Dd , fol. 129 r [الزمان شهرين 6 3 E: scripsi ماقيدوىىا [ماقيدونيا sine punctis E: scripsi [ديس sine punctis E: scripsi 17 [ديس 14

29 of Hippocrates Epidemics part I 1a three. The reason why these two seasons rather than the other two are divided (further) is their respective lengths, because the period between the rise of the Pleiades and the rise of Arcturus amounts to four and the period between the setting of the Pleiades and the vernal equinox to more than four months. Spring on the other hand takes up less than two months and was therefore rightly put aside and not divided. The same applies to autumn: even though it lasts longer than spring because it comprises two (full) months, it is still much shorter than the length of summer and winter. Let it suffice for me to explain to you a single time what I said about this. Remember and keep it in mind throughout everything I say next so that you are easily able to distinguish these seasons from the months in each country, since the inhabitants of different countries and communities have different months. If the months followed the same system in every country, Hippocrates would not have needed to mention the setting of the Pleiades, Arcturus and Sirius, and the two equinoxes and solstices, but it would have been enough for him to say that the mixture of the air was in such-and-such a condition at the beginning of such-and-such a month, for example by saying that the mixture of the air in the month called Dis, that is, November, was in such-and-such a condition. But since the inhabitants of different countries use different names and calculations for the months, only the M acedonians would have understood Hippocrates if he had given the name of the month mentioned above, that is, Dis, because it is the name of one of their months. Athenians and the inhabitants of other places would not have understood him. Hippocrates, however, wants the people of every country and every community to benefit from knowing this. It was therefore in accordance with his purpose best for him to define the seasons by means of equinox and solstice, two

30 94 Galen, Commentary on the first book 15 الشهور فتخص ا هل بلد بلد وا م ة ا م ة. فمن كان لا خبر له بعلم النجوم فليعلم قبل كل شيء ا ن ه قد خالف هوى ا بقراط ا ذ كان ا بقراط يا مر من قصد للطب ا ن يتقد م فيستعد له بتعل م علم النجوم للحاجة ا ليه فيما ذكرنا. وهذا وا ن كان هكذا فا ن ي ا رى على كل حال ا ن القصد لنفع من تلك 5 حاله ا شبه بطريق الرحمة فذلك يدعوني ا ن ا روم ا ن ا رسم لهم رسما في ا مر الا وقات حت ى ا بلغ ما يمكن في نفعهم حت ى ا ذا تدب روه وفهموه ونصبوه نصب ا عينهم نالوا ثمرة جميع ما قال ا بقراط في هذا الباب الذي نحن فيه. فا قول ا ن السنة تنقسم ا لى ا ربعة ا قسام بالاستوائين والمنقلبين. فا ذا ا نت سا لت رجلا من المنج مين عن هذه الا قسام الا ربعة في ا ي الشهور من شهور ا هل بلدك 10 وفي كم من كل واحد منها تقع قدرت ا ن تفهم عنه ما يصف لك من سائر الا نواء التي تكون بطلوع وغروب كل واحد من الكواكب ا و من جماعاتها. وا نا ا ضرب لك في ذلك مثلا لتفه مه به: ا قول ا ن ك ا ذا تقد مت فعلمت ا ن الاستواء الخريفي يكون في ا و ل يوم من الشهر الذي يسم يه ا هل ماقيدونيا «ديس» ثم علمت ا ن المنقلب الشتوي يكون بعدها بثلاثة ا شهر علمت ا ن ه يقع في ا و ل 15 يوم من الشهر الذي يسم يه ا هل ماقيدونيا «باريطيس» وهو ش باط فا ن على هذا كان ا هل ماقيدونيا وضعوا ا صل حسابهم. وا ذا علمت ا ن الاستواء الربيعي يكون بعد هذا بثلاثة ا شهر علمت ا ن ه يقع في ا و ل يوم من الشهر الذي يقال له «ا رطيميسيس» من شهور ا هل ماقيدونيا وهو ا ي ار. وكذلك ا ذا علمت ا ن المنقلب الصيفي يكون بعد هذا بثلاثة ا شهر علمت ا ن ه يقع في ا و ل يوم من الشهر الذي cf. b. Riḍwān, Fawāʾid I 1: Cantabr. Dd , fol. 129 v [فمن ذكرنا 3 1 يسم يه sine punctis E: scripsi [ديس E: sec. τὰ μέρη Gr. ω conieci 13 الا يام [الا قسام 9 [ماقيدونيا E 3 : scripsi 16 ىارىطيس add. om. E, in marg. [باريطيس om. E, in marg. add. E 3 15 الذي om. E, in marg. add. ماقدونيا E 3 : ارطيميسيس [ا رطيميسيس correxi 18 E: scripsi

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