A PRELIMINARY STRATIFICATIONAL ANALYSIS OF SOME DENYA (ALCAM 882) MORPHOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES

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1 Ministry of Scientific and Technical Research A PRELIMINARY STRATIFICATIONAL ANALYSIS OF SOME DENYA (ALCAM 882) MORPHOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES Lawrence Seguin SIL B.P Yaoundé Republic of Cameroon October 1998

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3 Table of Contents 1Introduction...ii 2Language Information...ii 2.1Name of Language...ii 2.2Language Classification, Genetic Affiliation, etc...ii 2.3Number and Geographic Distribution of Speakers...ii 2.4Dialects and Language Varieties...iii 2.5Previous Work Done...iii 2.6This Research...iii 3The Stratified Model of Communication: An Overview...iv 3.1Stratal Levels...v 3.2Constituents of Strata Morphemic Stratum Semantic Stratum Kinds of Relationships Tactic Relationships Realization Relationships...6 4Denya Morphemic Charts How to Read a Morphemic Chart General Considerations Constituent Positions Semantic Stratum Relationships Constructions M-Adjective Word M-Demonstrative Word M-Numeral Word M-Verb Word M-Complex Verb Stem M-Compound Verb Phrase M-Noun Word Derived Noun Stem M-Noun Phrase M-Associative Noun Phrase M- Preposition Phrase M-Coordinate Phrase M-Imperative Clause M-Clause M-Sentence Conclusion...93 appendix a: maps...95 appendix b: semantic propositions illustrated in this analysis...97 appendix c: denya texts...99 appendix d: extract from abangma (1987) on verb modes Table of Figures Figure 1: The stratified model of communication...1 Figure 2: English M-Noun Phrase...3 i

4 Figure 3:Denya M-Verb Word (partial)...8 A PRELIMINARY STRATIFICATIONAL ANALYSIS OF SOME DENYA (ALCAM 882) MORPHOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES Lawrence Seguin SIL Cameroon October INTRODUCTION In this paper I present a preliminary description of 15 word and phrase constructions in Denya, a language spoken in the South-West Province of the Republic of Cameroon. It is the result of analysis done between October 1996 and September 1998 on five texts written in the Takamanda dialect, the standard written form of the language (the texts appear in Appendix C). The text data is augmented by data from personal languagelearning sessions. The model used is Fleming s stratified model of communication, also known as the stratificational approach to communication analysis or stratificational grammar. 2.1Name of Language 2LANGUAGE INFORMATION According to both Ethnologue (Grimes 1992:186) and the Atlas administratif des langues nationales du Cameroun (Breton and Fohtung 1991:121), the language is known as Denya. Ethnologue also lists the following alternative names: Anyang, Anyan, Anyah, Eyan, Takamanda, Obonya, and Nyang. 2.2Language Classification, Genetic Affiliation, etc. Ethnologue (Grimes 1992:186) classifies Denya as Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Broad Bantu, Mamfe. The classification of Denya as Southern Bantoid is confirmed by Bendor-Samuel (1989:434). Breton and Fohtung (1991:121) classify Denya as belonging to Nyang, a sub-branch of Wide Bantu ( bantou au sens large ). 2.3Number and Geographic Distribution of Speakers According to Ethnologue (Grimes 1992:186), there are 11,200 speakers of Denya, based on a 1982 estimate from SIL. There are undoubtedly more than that today. The language is spoken in a total of 47 villages (Tyhurst and Tyhurst 1983) in Akwaya and Mamfe Central Subdivisions, Manyu Division, South-West Province. Both a linguistic map of Manyu Division and a dialect map of the Denya area appear in Appendix A. ii

5 2.4Dialects and Language Varieties According to Abangma (1987), there are distinct dialect differences among Denya speakers, corresponding to such clans as Takamanda, Bitieku, Basho, and Kendem. Tyhurst and Tyhurst (1983) recognize four dialects Takamanda, Basho, Bitieku, and Bajwa but do not include Kendem because of the significant differences in morphological forms that we found in the survey (e.g., noun prefixes and the verb prefix marking infinitives) (1983:40). Abangma maintains, however, that since he is able to communicate with Kendem friends of his without too much loss of information (1987:2), Kendem can be considered a Denya dialect. The Takamanda variety has been chosen as the standard reference dialect for language development. 2.5Previous Work Done Prior to Abangma s research mentioned below, there appears to have been very little work done on Denya. James and Janis Tyhurst of SIL carried out lexicostatistical and sociolinguistic research on Denya as part of their broader study of the Nyang languages, including Kenyang (cf. Tyhurst 1983, Tyhurst 1984, Tyhurst and Tyhurst 1983). They calculated cognate rates between the Nyang languages based on a 200-item word list; sketched out noun classes and a phonology for a number of the varieties they studied; and gathered sociolinguistic data that would help both in defining the dialects of Kenyang and Denya and in designing future mother tongue literacy programs. Abangma s Modes in Denya Discourse (1987) appears to be the first major piece of research providing an in-depth analysis of a significant aspect of the grammar of the language. The intent of his work is to account for the function of lower-level grammatical units, namely, verb forms, in the context of Denya discourse structure (1987:4). Abagma bases his work on an analysis of 35 tape-recorded oral texts 15 narrative, eight procedural, six hortatory, and six expository representing some 15 hours of recorded, freely spoken language. His study is divided as follows: 1. The modes, covering the structure of the verb, the indicative modes and the nonindicative modes; 2. Modes in different types of discourse: narrative, procedural, expository, and hortatory. Abangma s study provides insight into the specific and unique use of Denya modes or verb forms in grammatical structures above the sentence level. Accounting for how languages function at the discourse level is gaining recognition for the contribution it can make to language development work. Its benefits are being seen especially in the area of translation from non-african languages, which have very different ways of using verbs. Mbuagbaw has also produced a Denya alphabet and orthography statement (1994) and a description of Denya tone orthography (1995). 2.6This Research As previously stated, this paper contains a preliminary analysis of 15 different word and phrase constructions in the Takamanda dialect of Denya, based on five texts from Abangma s research as well as my own personal language-learning and data-collection efforts. iii

6 The texts include two narrative, one procedural, one hortatory, and one expository, as follows: Narrative: Why an Elephant Always Dies Near a Stream (referred to hereinafter as Elephant and Stream) Narrative: How ØjoøøæPrevented His Divorce (Nkpee s Divorce) Procedural: How to Make a Sleeping Mat (Sleeping Mat) Expository: ØfaøSociety (Ngbe Society) Hortatory: Always Do Your Work Well (Do Work Well) In addition to presenting the structures in morphotactic charts, I touch upon other areas of interest related to the various constructions, notably the very rich noun concord system. I am especially indebted to Dr. Abangma for graciously allowing me to use his material for my analysis. I also wish to express my appreciation to those members of the Denya community who have helped me with my imperfect efforts to learn their language, namely, Mr. TIKU Richard ABANG, Mr. TAMBE Sunday EYONG, and Mr. TAMBI Robinson TABI. Finally, a special word of gratitude must go to Pastor Gabriel BESONG, coordinator of the Denya Language Project for the Cameroon Association for Bible Translation and Literacy (CABTAL). Besides helping me find the assistance I needed, Pastor Besong always had a kind word of encouragement to offer. So, to all of these people I wish to say a hearty: Cdæodæ,næ 'Sg`mjxnt ( 1A Note about Transcription and Glossing I have used the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) for transcription, with the following notable adaptations to the Denya orthography: Symbol Used c sh j IPA τσ Σ δζ Note that the transcriptions are phonemic rather than phonetic. As for the glossing of Abangma s texts, I stayed as closely as possible to his glosses but took the liberty to make it more detailed where I felt it might be helpful. I am open to correction, however. I now continue with an overview of the stratified model of communication that I used in the analysis. 3THE STRATIFIED MODEL OF COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW The stratified model of communication was developed by Fleming (1988, 1990), building on Lamb s work in structural linguistics (Lamb 1966). This section, by giving an overview of the stratificational approach, should help readers unfamiliar with the model understand how I have applied it to a preliminary analysis of Denya word and phrase structures. iv

7 3.1Stratal Levels According to Fleming (1988:2), The stratified communication model treats any message as having a number of different kinds of organizational structures which form a connected network when woven together to encode a communication act. These organizational structures are called strata. The model is diagrammed in Figure 1 on page 1: meaning, or content, appears at the top, and expression appears at the bottom. Encoding a message involves moving from the top of the diagram to the bottom, whereas decoding involves moving from the bottom of the diagram to the top. Figure 1 shows that the strata are organized into 5 different stratal levels. Except for the expression level, they all have one stratum each. They are as follows: 1) The communication situation (abbreviated CS ) includes anything in the real world that determines the content of the message and how the message is communicated. Associated with this stratum are the referential realm, which refers to anything a communicator may want to talk about (e.g., language itself, real objects, or hypothetical objects); the culture of the situation (e.g., expected behaviour, common beliefs and associations); the social setting; and social relationships. 2) The semantic stratum (abbreviated S ) is an abstract code that represents meaning. Fleming has organized the semantic stratum into various constructions such as propositions and interpropositions (cf. section 3.2.2). 3) The morphemic stratum (abbreviated M ) is the level that is organized into constructions similar to those found in conventional grammars of morphology and syntax. 4) The expression level contains several strata through which communication finds overt expression: phonemic ( P ), i.e., the phonological units of a language; prosodic ( Pr ), i.e., pitch and intonation; kinesic ( K ), i.e., gestures; graphemic ( Gr ), i.e., writing; gestemic ( Ge ), i.e., sign language; and so on. 5) The level of physical phenomena includes sound waves, light waves, electrical impulses, etc. The transmission channel is not a stratal level per se but includes things like the air, water, wires, radio, and telephone (Fleming 1988:3). Any dynamic act of communication involves multiple strata being activated. For example, when a speaker points to a cat and says cat, the following is activated: 1) from the communication situation stratum, the concept of cat in the referential realm; 2) from the phonemic stratum, the sequence of three phonemes /k/ + /ae/ + /t/ realized phonetically as [kaet]; and 3) from the Kinesic stratum, the act of raising one s hand and extending one s finger in the direction of the animal. The strata do not act independently of one another but rather come into active relationship with one another. The ensuing relationships, called realization relationships, are further discussed in section In Figure 1, the lines connecting the different strata show many, though not all, of the possible ways in which strata are interconnected in human communication. Note, however, that all the information in one stratum does not need to be related to all of the other strata. For example, in Labov s study of Martha s Vineyard speech, social status in the communication situation was realized in part by how the vowels were pronounced on the phonemic stratum (Fleming 1988:6). There did not appear to be any overt morphemic realization of social status in this case. v

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9 Figure 1: The stratified model of communication (Source: Fleming 1988:5) - 1 -

10 3.2Constituents of Strata As I mentioned above, strata are considered to be organizational structures; therefore, each one has its own unique set of constituents. The minimal units are called emes, e.g., morpheme, sememe. 1 The minimal units of a stratum may be combined to form constructions, e.g., a morphemic Word, Phrase, or Clause; a semantic Proposition. The minimal units that can be substituted within the same part of a construction are grouped together and called distribution classes, e.g., morphemic noun, verb, preposition; semantic thing, action, mental process. (Note that the names of emes and distribution classes are written in lower-case letters, whereas the names of constructions are written with an initial upper-case letter.) In the following discussion I will limit myself to the constituents of the two strata that are the focus of this paper, that is, the morphemic and semantic strata Morphemic Stratum The minimal unit (or eme) of the morphemic stratum is the morpheme. Morphemes combine into larger constructions such as M-Words (e.g., M-Noun Word, M-Verb Word), M-Phrases (e.g., M-Noun Phrase, M-Verb Phrase, M-Preposition Phrase), M-Clauses, and M-Sentences. (The M preceding the name of a construction, together with the initial capital letter on the name itself, indicate a construction of the morphemic stratum.) Morphemes can also be organized into distribution classes that correspond generally to traditional grammatical categories such as noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc. 2Constituents of a Morphemic Construction A morphemic construction consists of two or more constituent positions and the morphemic distribution classes or constructions that fill each position. It is presented in formula form. For example, Fleming (1988:273) proposes the following for the English M-Noun Phrase: M-Noun Phrase = P5: {adj,adjp} + P4:{art,dmstr} + P3 n :{adj,adjp} + P2:Clause + P1:{noun,NP} + C n :{noun,00} + F1 n :PrepP + F2 n :{[1.that,wh_ 2.Clause],Clause-VW.F:ing} This reads as follows: The morphemic Noun Phrase consists of a central constituent position (C:) filled by n number of nouns or The first position preceding the C: position (P1:) is filled by a noun or Noun Phrase. The 2nd preceding position (P2:) is filled by a Clause...The first position following the C: position (F1:) is filled by n number of Preposition Phrases. The second following position (F2:) is filled by n number of relative clauses or participial clauses. 3 3Morphemic Charts The formula is accompanied by a morphemic chart that contains both illustrative data from the language under investigation and realization relationships with the semantic stratum. Fleming proposes the chart (Figure 2, page 3) for the English M-Noun Phrase (Fleming ). 1 On the phonemic stratum the minimal unit is called a feature because the notion of phoneme as a combination of features is already widely recognized (Fleming 1988:6) = Double-zero realization, which means that there is no overt realization of the semantic element on the morphemic stratum. Also, brace brackets ({ }) means or. 3 [1.that,wh_ 2.Clause] refers to an English relative clause. Clause-VW.F:ing refers to an English participial clause

11 Figure 2: English M-Noun Phrase (Source: Fleming 1988:273) - 3 -

12 Note that examples can be used that do not fill every position. The important thing is to ensure that the overall selection of examples leaves every position filled, accounts for all the possible fillers of each position, and provides a mixture of both simple and complex utterances. Section explains how to read the semantic-to-morphemic realization relationships from a morphemic chart Semantic Stratum The minimal unit (or eme) of the semantic stratum is the sememe. Sememes can be combined to form semantic constructions such as S-Propositions, S-Interpropositions, S- Discourse, and S-Conversation Block. (The S preceding the name of a proposition or interproposition, together with the initial capital letter, indicate a construction of the semantic stratum.) Sememes can also be grouped into distribution classes such as thing, action, perception, mental process, psychological process, attribute (thing), and attribute (action). Within the semantic stratum, Fleming proposes a number of propositions and interpropositions that are grouped into different categories. These categories are: 3. Event propositions: S-Event (ACTIVITY), S-Event (EXPERIENCE), S-Event (COGNITION), S-Event (REACTION), etc. 4. Interparticipant propositions: S-Ownership, S-Containership, S-Kinship, etc. 5. Single participant propositions: S-Material Composition, S-Partitive, etc. 6. Quantity propositions: S-Count, S-Measurement, S-Proportion, etc. 7. Attribution propositions: S-Attribution 8. Classificatorial propositions: S-Classification (thing), S-Classification (action), S-Classification (expressive), etc. 9. Identificational propositions: S-Identification, S-Name, S-Specification The full list of semantic propositions can be found in Fleming (1988). A list of those illustrated in this analysis is given in Appendix B. 4Constituents of a Semantic Construction A semantic proposition generally consists of two or three minimal constituents, each consisting of a constituent function and a filler. The following is an example of a semantic proposition formula (Fleming 1988:36): S-Event (ACTIVITY) = AGENT:thing + ACTIVITY:action + PATIENT:thing This formula reads as follows: The semantic activity event has three minimal constituents: the minimal semantic function of AGENT filled by a sememe belonging to the thing distribution class; plus the minimal semantic function of ACTIVITY filled by a sememe belonging to the action distribution class; plus the minimal semantic function of PATIENT filled by a sememe belonging to the thing distribution class. (Note that the convention is to write the name of the construction with an initial upper-case letter; the semantic function in all upper-case letters; and the distribution class filler in all lowercase letters.) - 4 -

13 An example of an utterance corresponding to a S-Event (ACTIVITY) is, The man hit the dog. In this case we would say man is the member of the distribution class thing that fills AGENT, hit is the member of the distribution class action that fills ACTIVITY, and dog is the member of the distribution class thing that fills PATIENT. This can be expressed in terms of a formula, as follows: S-Event (ACTIVITY) = AGENT:thing man + ACTIVITY:action hit + PATIENT:thing dog 5Minimal and Additional Semantic Functions The above formula illustrates a semantic proposition with its minimal constituent functions; i.e., AGENT, ACTIVITY, and PATIENT are considered the minimal functions of S-Event (ACTIVITY). For this proposition to be activated by a given morphemic construction, at least two of the functions must be realized on the morphemic stratum; most frequently these are ACTIVITY plus either AGENT or PATIENT. Some propositions have only two minimal functions, e.g., S-Attribution = ITEM:thing + ATTRIBUTION:attribute. (An example of an S-Attribution is the red book, where ITEM is filled by book, a member of the thing class, and ATTRIBUTION is filled by red, a member of the attribute class.) In this case, both minimal functions need to be realized on a lower stratum for the proposition to be activated. The minimal functions of a proposition can be expanded by what Fleming calls additional functions (Fleming 1990:103). Common examples are S-SPATIAL LOCATION, S-INSTRUMENT, and S-TENSE. Like minimal functions, additional functions are written in all upper-case letters. Realization of S-SPATIAL LOCATION can be found in an utterance such as They went swimming at the city pool. (Fleming ). This additional function expands the S-Event (ACTIVITY) realized by the utterance They went swimming. If we return to our previous example of the S-Event (ACTIVITY) illustrated by the utterance The man hit the dog, it could be expanded with the additional function of S- INSTRUMENT by adding with the sandal. 6Interpropositions Two Propositions can come together to form an interproposition, which Fleming (1988: ) divides into four types of arrangements: S-Temporal Arrangement, S- Spatial Arrangement, S-Logical Arrangement, and S-Serial Arrangement. Each of the first three are further divided into simultaneous and sequential arrangements; in addition, there is a contrast arrangement for S-Logical Arrangement. An example of an interproposition is the sentence, John went out to the garden carrying his hoe and shovel (Fleming 1988:182). It breaks down into two semantic activity events, John went out to the garden and carrying his hoe and shovel. Because the actions in the two events occur simultaneously, the semantic relationship is S- Temporal Arrangement (SIMULTANEOUS), the formula for which is as follows (Fleming 1988:182): S-Temporal Arrangement (SIMULTANEOUS) = SIMUL A: Event, Interproposition + SIMUL B:Event, Interproposition We can write the above example into the formula as follows: - 5 -

14 S-Temporal Arrangement (SIMULTANEOUS) = SIMUL A:[S-Event (ACTIVITY) = AGENT:John + ACTIVITY:go + SPAT LOC:garden] + SIMUL B:[S-Event (ACTIVITY) = AGENT:John + ACTIVITY:carry + PATIENT:hoe + shovel] An example of a S-Temporal Arrangement (sequential) would be John went to the garden after picking up his hoe and shovel. John went to the garden would fill the function of SUBSEQUENT, and after picking up his hoe and shovel would fill the function of PRIOR. 4 Other examples of interpropositions can be found in the charts for M-Complex Verb Stem and M-Sentence in sections and respectively. 3.3Kinds of Relationships A major aim of a stratificational analysis is to describe a language both in terms of the organizational structure of each stratum and in terms of the relationships between strata. These are known as tactic and realization relationships respectively and are described below Tactic Relationships Tactic relationships refer to how emes of the same stratum are combined to form larger units or constructions on that stratum; thus, they are intrastratal relationships. For example, on the morphemic stratum, morphemes may be combined to form a morphemic Word, Phrase, or Clause. On the phonemic stratum, features can be combined to form Phonemes, and Phonemes combined to form Syllables. In this paper I focus on some of the morphotactic relationships that are found in the Denya language. In other words, I wish to show how some of the different morphemic and syntactic constructions are put together Realization Relationships Realization relationships refer to how elements of one stratum relate to those of another stratum. They are, therefore, interstratal relationships. Realization relationships can be downward or upward. Downward relationships are those that relate upper-stratum elements to lower-stratum ones (e.g., from the semantic to the morphemic stratum, also called S/M relationships). For example, in English S-Event (ACTIVITY) can be realized morphemically by a M-Clause, as in The man hit the dog. (Generally, semantic propositions are realized by morphemic constructions, and semantic functions are realized by positions in a morphemic construction (Cope 1993:100). Exceptions to this rule will be pointed out in the chart descriptions.) Upward relationships are those that relate lower-stratum elements to upper-stratum ones (e.g., from morphemic to semantic, also called M\S relationships). For example, in English the M-Noun Phrase can realize a S-Attribution, as in the red book. Like semantic and morphemic tactic relationships, realization relationships can be written in the form of a formula, as shown below: 4 SIMULTANEOUS (in S-Temporal Arrangement (SIMULTANEOUS)) is written in all upper-case letters because it is a minimal function of the interproposition. Sequential, on the other hand, is not a minimal function of S- Temporal Arrangement (sequential), the functions of which are PRIOR and SUBSEQUENT; hence, it is written in all lower-case letters

15 Downward: S-Event (ACTIVITY) / M-Clause The semantic activity event proposition is realized by the morphemic clause construction. Alternatively, one can say, The semantic activity event proposition activates the morphemic clause construction. Is realized by and activates are synonymous. Upward: M-Noun Phrase \ S-Attribution The morphemic noun phrase construction realizes a semantic attribution proposition. Alternatively, one can say, The morphemic noun phrase construction is activated by the semantic attribution proposition. Realizes and is activated by are synonymous. Note the use of the forward slash (/) for downward realization, and of the backward slash (\) for upward realization. In this paper I illustrate some of the realization relationships between the morphemic and semantic strata in the Denya language, as shown in the morphemic charts in section 4. 7Alternate Realization Although there are several types of interstratal realization relationships, a key one in this model that I would like to briefly discuss is the one known as alternate realization; this occurs when an upper-level unit has more than one lower-level realization. Fleming gives an example from Garifuna, a Central American Carib language, in which S- TEMPORAL LOCATION can be realized morphemically either before the verb (i.e., in a M-Clause.P position) or after the verb (in a M-Clause.F position) (1990:17). She writes: The question that needs to be answered is WHY is one way to be selected over another. This kind of information is crucial for adequate translation equivalence to be achieved. (1990:19) The stratificational model does not admit free variation; rather, it seeks to discover pragmatic explanations for the choice of one grammatical form over the other, such as, among other options, focus or topicalization. Generally speaking, alternate realizations, as all other interstratal relationships, would be dealt with comprehensively in a full stratificational analysis, including the writing of S/M and M\S rules. This paper, on the other hand, focuses on morphotactic relationships. Nevertheless, I comment on interstratal relationships (including alternate realization) where they seem to be especially pertinent or illuminating. 4DENYA MORPHEMIC CHARTS This section contains the charts for 15 different morphemic constructions in Denya, illustrating a variety of morphological and syntactic structures. These represent only a preliminary analysis of limited data. Before presenting the charts in section 4.2, I will briefly describe how to read a chart. 4.1How to Read a Morphemic Chart 4.1.1General Considerations A morphemic chart shows the following: - 7 -

16 1) the order of constituent positions in the construction; 2) the morphemic distribution classes and/or constructions that can fill each position; 3) the semantic construction (proposition, interproposition) or function that is realized by (or activates) the morphemic construction as a whole; and 4) the semantic functions that are realized by (or activate) each position in the morphemic construction. Thus, the chart shows at a glance the tactic relationships of the morphemic stratum (items #1 and 2) as well as its realization relationships with the semantic stratum (items #3 and 4). The charts given in this section pertain to both M-Words and M-Phrases. The main distinction between a M-Word and a M-Phrase is that the former is an affixed construction and the latter is not. A partial reproduction of the Denya M-Verb Word chart (Figure 3) will help familiarize the reader with how to read the chart. Figure 3:Denya M-Verb Word (partial) R R R R R R ΙΤΕΜ(Αττβν) ΑΣΠΕΧΤ ΑΤΤΡΙΒΥΤΙΟΝ ΤΕΝΣΕ+ΝΕΓΑΤΙςΕ ΜΕΜΒΕΡ ΑΓΕΝΤ ΠΗΑΣΕ Χλασσιφιχατιον(τηινγ) ΛΟΓΙΧΑΛ_ΡΕΛΑΤΙΟΝ(ΠΡΙΟΡ) ΑΥΤΗΟΡΙΖΕΡ ΝΕΓΑΤΕ ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ ΠΡΙΟΡ(ΤΑ(σεθ)) ΠΡΟΧΕΣΣΟΡ ΑΥΤΗΟΡΙΖΕΡ ΤΕΝΣΕ ΧΣ ΙΝΤΕΝΤ ΤΕΝΣΕ ΣΠΕΑΚΕΡ ΧΟΓΝΙΤΙΟΝ ΕΞΠΡΕΣΣΙΟΝ ΕΞΙΣΤΕΝΤΙΑΛ ΑΤΤΡΙΒΥΤΙΟΝ+ΧΗΑΝΓΕ ΩΗΟΛΕ Εξιστεντιαλ ΩΗΟΛΕ ΣΠΑΤΙΑΛ_ΛΟΧΑΤΕ Σπατιαλ_Λοχατιον(τηινγ) Μ ςερβ_ωορδ= Π2: Π1: Χ: Φ: Ρεφ Φρεε Τρανσλατιον µ 00 ϖερβ_πρεφιξ ϖερβ_ροοτ ϖερβ_συφφιξ ϖερβ_πρεφιξ Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ Σ ΤΝΣ Μ ϖσφξ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Τηερε ψου ΩΕΛΛ 002 αρε, αβουτ το æ,ixøæ,fd λεαϖε φορ 2Σ ωηο:γο(ρελ:νον:πστ) ΡΕΛ:ΝΟΝ:ΠΣΤ φορειγν λανδσ Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ Σ ΠΡ Μ ϖσφξ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Ονχε τηερε, ΩΕΛΛ 004 ψου σηουλδ,ixø,fdæ αλωαψσ βε 2Σ γο(χον ) ΧΟΝ δοινγ ψουρ ωορκ (λιτ.: ιτ ). Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ Σ ΛΡΕΛΝ(ΠΡ) Μ ϖσφξ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Ιφ ψου µαρρψ ΩΕΛΛ α φορειγν,a`,fdæ 012β ωοµαν... 2Σ µαρρψ(χον ) ΧΟΝ Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ µ 00 Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ Σ ΧΣ ΙΝΤ Μ ϖσφξ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Βε δοινγ ψουρ ΩΕΛΛ ωορκ ωελλ. 00 oxøæ,mdæ 017β 00 δο(ιμπ:ανψτ) ΙΜΠ:ΑΝΨΤ Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΣΠ Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ Ηε γαϖε Μ ϖπφξ ΙςΟΡΧΕ ανοτηερ λαω. `,exøæ 010 3Σ:Χ1,l` πυτ(πστ) ΡΕΠ Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΠΗΣ Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ Ηε φελλ - 8 -

17 Μ ϖπφξ ΙςΟΡΧΕ ασλεεπ. `,aøækd 013 3Σ:Χ1,k`æ σλεεπ(πστ) ΙΝΧΕΠ Εϖεντ(ΧΟΓΝΙΤΙΟΝ) Σ ΠΡΟΧΣΡ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΧΟΓ Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ Ηαϖε ψου ΙςΟΡΧΕ ηεαρδ?,vtæ 011 2Σ ηεαρ(πστ) Εϖεντ(ΕΞΠΡΕΣΣΙΟΝ) Σ ΣΠΚΡ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΕΞΠΣΝ Μ ϖρτ Σ ΤΝΣ+ΝΕΓ Μ ϖσφξ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Νοβοδψ ωιλλ ΩΕΛΛ 009 θυεστιον ψου. `æ,fõ Õ,fdæ 3Σ:Χ1 ασκ(νεγ:νον:πστ) ΝΕΓ:ΝΟΝ:ΠΣΤ ℵ I I I I I I - 9 -

18 R R R R R R Μ ςερβ_ωορδ= Π2: Π1: Χ: Φ: Ρεφ Φρεε Τρανσλατιον Εϖεντ(ΠΡΟΧΕΣΣ) Σ ΙΤΜ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΤΤΒΝ+ΧΗΝΓ Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ Ηισ βυττοχκσ ΙςΟΡΧΕ ωερε ρεδ. tæ,fø kdæ 014 3Π:Χ8 βεχοµε:ρεδ(αττρ) Αττριβυτιον Σ ΙΤΜ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΤΤΒΝ Μ ϖρτ ΕΛΕΠΗΑΝΤ Τηε φαρµ ωασ & ΣΤΡΕΑΜ ρεαλλψ βιγ. øæ,œø `æ 005 3Σ:Χ5 βιγ(αττρ) Χλασσιφιχατιον(τηινγ) Σ ΜΕΜ Μ ϖπφξ Σ Χλσσφν(τη) Μ ϖρτ ΝΓΒΕ Øfaø ισ αν ΣΟΧΙΕΤΨ οργανιζατιον `,kt Σ:Χ? ισ(αττρ) Εξιστεντιαλ Σ ΕΞΣΤΛ Μ ϖπφξ Σ Εξστλ Μ ϖρτ ΕΛΕΠΗΑΝΤ Τηερε ισ νο & ΣΤΡΕΑΜ ωατερ... l`æ,kt*mdf 021 3Σ:Χ6α ισ(αττρ) Σπατιαλ_Λοχατιον(τηινγ) Σ ΣΛΟΧ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΣΛοχ(τη) Μ ϖρτ ΕΛΕΠΗΑΝΤ Χραβ ωασ τηεν & ΣΤΡΕΑΜ ιν α σµαλλ `,kt 010 στρεαµ. 3Σ:Χ1 ισ(αττρ) ΑΥΤΗΟΡΙΖΕΡ Σ ΑΤΗΡ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΤΗΡ Μ ϖρτ Σ ΧΣ ΙΝΤ Μ ϖσφξ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Ψου δαρε νοτ ΩΕΛΛ µαρρψ α æ,j`,fdæ 012α φορειγν 2Σ δαρε:νοτ(νεγ:ιμπ) ΝΕΓ:ΙΜΠ ωοµαν... ΤΕΝΣΕ Σ ΑΓ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΤΝΣ Μ ϖρτ ΝΟΝ ΤΕΞΤ Τηε βοψ ωασ ΑΤΑ 010 γιϖινγ ηισ ` a æ (ΤΑΠΕ πιγ φοοδ. 3Σ:Χ1 ΠΣΤ 9Α) ΩΗΟΛΕ Σ ΩΗΛ Μ ϖπφξ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΩΗΛ Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ Α ηυσβανδ ΙςΟΡΧΕ ωηο δοεσ νοτ `æ,k`æ,ktæ*mdf 031 ηαϖε ρεδ 3Σ:Χ1 ΡΕΛ:ΝΕΓ ισ(ρελ:νον:πστ) βυττοχκσ... ℵ I I I I I I 4.1.2Constituent Positions The starting point for reading the M-Verb Word chart will be the cell M-Verb Word =, located just below the upper left-hand corner of the chart. Reading across, we can see the relative order of the constituent positions of the M- Verb Word as well as the morphemic distribution class that fills each position. Thus, based on available data, I tentatively posit that a M-Verb Word consists of four constituent positions: a) a central (C:) position filled by a verb root; b) a first position preceding the central position (P1:), filled by a verb prefix; c) a second position preceding the central position (P2:), also filled by a verb prefix; and d) one position following the central constituent (F:), filled by a verb suffix Semantic Stratum Relationships Reading down the left-hand column now, we can see that the M-Verb Word in Denya realizes (or is activated by) the following semantic propositions and functions (according to this preliminary analysis): S-Event (ACTIVITY) S-Event (EXPRESSION) S-Event (COGNITION) S-Event (PROCESS)

19 S-Attribution S-Classification(thing) S-Spatial Location(thing) S-TENSE S-Existential S-AUTHORIZER S-Partitive.WHOLE The complete chart can be found in section ; fuller data may add to this list. To the right of each proposition in the chart is an illustrative utterance. Again, as with the English M-Noun Phrase, each constituent position does not need to be filled in a given example. At the top of each constituent position in the morphemic chart are listed the semantic functions that are realized by that position. Thus, VW.P2 (the second position preceding the central constituent position of the M-Verb Word) is activated by the following semantic functions: S-Classification (thing).member S-Event (ACTIVITY).AGENT S-Event (COGNITION).PROCESSOR S-Event (EXPRESSION).SPEAKER S-Event (PROCESS).ITEM S-Existential.EXISTENTIAL S-Spatial Location (thing).spatial LOCATED S-AUTHORIZER S-Partitive.WHOLE To the left of the full stop is the name of the semantic proposition of which the function is part; to the right of the full stop is the name of the constituent function itself. (The exception is S-AUTHORIZER, which is not part of any proposition but is an additional function that can expand a proposition.) Within each cell of the chart, the semantic function realized in that position for that utterance is shown, as well as the morphemic distribution class or construction filling that position. Where I have not been able to identify either of these, I have put a double question mark (??). 4.2Constructions I now present the charts for 15 different morphological and syntactic constructions in Denya. (N.B.: Because of the computer program I used for producing the charts, hyphens are put on M-Word roots instead of prefixes.)

20 4.2.1M-Adjective Word The formula and chart for the M-Adjective Word are as follows: M-Adjective Word = P:adjective prefix + C:adjective root R R R R ΙΤΕΜ(Αττβν) ΑΤΤΡΙΒΥΤΙΟΝ ΤΟΤΑΛ(Προπρν) ΠΡΟΠΟΡΤΙΟΝ Μ Αδϕεχτιϖε_Ωορδ= Π: Χ: Ρεφ Φρεε Τρανσλατιον αδϕεχτιϖε_πρεφιξ αδϕεχτιϖε_ροοτ Προπορτιον Σ ΤΤΛ Μ αδϕπφξ Σ ΠΡΟΠΡΝ Μ αδϕρτ ΝΓΒΕ (τηε) ωηολε ΣΟΧΙΕΤΨ (οργανιζατιον) ld,jn 006 Χ9 αλλ Αττριβυτιον Σ ΙΤΜ Μ αδϕπφξ Σ ΑΤΤΒΝ Μ αδϕρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ (Τηεψ αρε)ρεδ. ΙςΟΡΧΕ t,føækdæ 045 Χ8 ρεδ ℵ I I I I Observations: 1) S-Attribution and S-Proportion are the only two semantic propositions observed to date activating this construction. 2) The prefix in P agrees in class with the head of the M-Noun Phrase. The M- Adjective Word occurs in the M-Noun Phrase.F2 position activated by S-Attribution. ATTRIBUTION and S-Proportion.TOTAL (cf. section 4.2.9). 3) The adjective roots,jn all/whole,,føækdæ red/ripe, and,fõ kdæ black illustrate the agreement of the the M-Adjective Word with the class of the head noun, as shown in Table 1. (These forms were elicited as a paradigm and should be verified in natural text and/or speech.) Table 1:M-adjective prefix Agreement Class Prefix Head Noun, j n all/whole, fõ k dæ black, fø æk dæ red/ripe 1 ld - œ fvø s book ld jn ld fõ kdæ ld føækdæ œ j æ cup ld jn ld fõ kdæ ld føækdæ 2 `æ- a j`æo` coins `æjn a m fvø s books `æjn ` fõ kdæ ` føækdæ 3 ld - ø k` hat ld jn ld fõ kdæ ld føækdæ ø r` cutlass ld jn ld fõ kdæ ld føækdæ 4 cd - cd k` hats cd jn cd fõ kdæ cd føækdæ

21 cd r` cutlasses cd jn cd fõ kdæ cd føækdæ

22 Class Prefix Head Noun, j n all/whole, fõ k dæ black, fø æk dæ red/ripe 5 md, md mjv` mbõÿ egg md jn md fõ kdæ md føækdæ md jn package md œjn 5 md fõ kdæ md føækdæ 6 `æ, l` mjv` mbõÿ eggs `æjn ` fõ kdæ ` føækdæ l` jn packages `æjn ` fõ kdæ ` føækdæ 6a l` m` water l` jn l` fõ kdæ l` føækdæ l` vd oil l` jn l` føækdæ 7 fd - fd a`æfdæœ fvø s paper fd jn fd fõ kdæ fd føækdæ fd m æfdæœ fvø s pen fd jn fd fõ kdæ fd føækdæ fd jv` plantains fd føækdæ 8 t - t m æœ fvø s pens t jn t fõ kdæ t føækdæ t a`æœ fvø s paper (pl.) t jn t fõ kdæ t føækdæ 9 ld - œ œld goat ld jn ld fõ kdæ ld føækdæ ld rgt elephant ld jn 10 ø - œ œld goats ø jn ø fõ kdæ ø føækdæ ld rgt elephants 4) M-Adjective Words appear to be relatively few in number in Denya. There are a number of invariable adjectives (i.e., having no class prefix), as in the following examples: ø jn æ a b` æb` other people (Do Work Well 002) lt jo ` important person (Do Work Well 005) lt e some person (Do Work Well 009) l l c æ æ much wine (Do Work Well 016b) t k` bt t red buttocks (Nkpee s Divorce 014) 5) Both variable colour adjectives (i.e. M-Adjective Words taking class agreement) and invariable ones can occur in a M-Clause with a copular verb or in a M-Noun Phrase containing a verbless relative clause. (The fact that these are adjectives and not verbs is seen in the absence of a subject concord marker (SCM).) Below are examples of copular clauses containing both variable and invariable colour adjectives: 1) ø k` d vd øæ,ktæ o tæo tæ (invariable) hat this:3 3S:3-to:be white this hat is white 2) œ j æ ` xõ `,kt ø æjv (invariable) cup this:1 3S:1-to:be yellow this cup is yellow 5 The insertion of the,œ, may be for euphony purposes, in order to avoid sequences such as md jn md jn or, if reduplicated, md jn md jn,md jn

23 3) l` k` rdæ a œjoø l`æ,kt l` f ø æk dæ l` f ø æk dæ (M-Adjective Word) bottom our PL-nkpee 3p-to:be red red The buttocks of us Nkpee are red. The following are examples of both types of colour adjectives occurring in a verbless relative clause: 4) œ fvø s ` xõ lø mcn (invariable) book REL:1 green a green book 5) ø k` ø vdæ o tæo tæ (invariable) hat REL:3 white a white hat 6) œ fvø s ` xõ ld f ø dæ æk (variable) book REL:1 red a red book 6) I found two other invariable adjectives that also take the relative marker, e and b`æ, both meaning other, e.g.: 7) ` œjo`æœjo`æ` xõ e pan REL:1 other the other pan a œfvø s` aõ e books REL:2 other the other books fd ix` kn ø xõ fdæe sweet:potato REL:7 other the other sweet potato t mnæœ fvø sø aõ e pens REL:8 other the other pens (Source: Language learning notes) 8) ld m xõ b` æ husband REL:1 other another husband (Source: NKPEE S DIVORCE 042) Note in observation 4) above that both e and b`æ (in its reduplicated form b`æb`æ) can occur directly after the head noun, without the relative marker. 8Summary To summarize, true adjectives seems to be few in number in Denya. They can be variable, in that they contain a concord prefix, or invariable. Both types can occur in a noun phrase, a stative clause, or a verbless relative clause. The adjectives found to date are as follows: Variable (with cl. 1 prefix) Table 2: Denya Adjectives Invariable ld jn all/whole e other otæotæ white ld fõ kdæ black b`æ'b`æ( other øæjv yellow ld føækdæ red / ripe jo` big lø mcn unripe c æ æ much m rgxø green bt t red

24 4.2.2M-Demonstrative Word The formula and chart for the M-Demonstrative Word are as follows: M-Demonstrative Word = C:demonstrative root + F n :{00, demonstrative suffix} R R R R ΣΠΕΧΙΦΙΧΑΤΙΟΝ ΠΡΟΞΙΜΙΤΨ Μ εµονστρατιϖε_ωορδ= Χ: Φ: ν Ρεφ Φρεε Τρανσλατιον δεµονστρατιϖε_ροοτ δεµονστρατιϖε_συφφιξ µ 00 ΠΡΟΞΙΜΙΤΨ Σ ΣΠΝ Μ δεµρτ Σ ΠΡΟΞ Μ δεµσφξ ΕΛΕΠΗΑΝΤ τηατ (στονε) & ΣΤΡΕΑΜ mõ md,la 016 τηισ:χ5 φαρ ΠΡΟΞΙΜΙΤΨ Σ ΣΠΝ Μ δεµρτ Σ ΠΡΟΞ Μ δεµσφξ ΕΛΕΠΗΑΝΤ τηατ (ωατερ) & ΣΤΡΕΑΜ lõ,la 021 τηισ:χ6α φαρ ΠΡΟΞΙΜΙΤΨ Σ ΣΠΝ Μ δεµρτ Σ ΠΡΟΞ Μ µ 00 ΝΟΝ ΤΕΞΤ τηισ (ωοµαν) ΑΤΑ 016 xõ 00 (ΤΑΠΕ xõ 00 9Α) δετ:χ1 00 ΠΡΟΞΙΜΙΤΨ Σ ΣΠΝ Μ δεµρτ Σ ΠΡΟΞ Μ δεµσφξ ΣΛΕΕΠΙΝΓ τηατ(µατεριαλ) ΜΑΤ 007 xõ,la τηισ:χ10 φαρ ℵ I I I I Observations: 1) Both the construction itself and the F position are activated by S-PROXIMITY, in keeping with Cope s fifth guideline of activation: If a construction has two positions and if an unlinked function activates one of those positions and if a linked function activates the other position, then the construction is probably activated by the linked function. (1993:107) S-PROXIMITY is considered a linked function, and S-SPECIFICATION an unlinked one (Cope 1993:106 7). The M-Demonstrative Word most often fills the M-Noun Phrase.F3 position realizing S-Specification.SPECIFICATION (cf. section 4.2.9). 2) The M-demonstrative root can stand alone in which case it means this or it can take one of three suffixes:,m`» this (emphasized),,la that, or,la mdæ that over there. I posit that F is iterative on the assumption (to be tested) that,la and,mdæ are different morphemes

25 3) The root agrees in class with the noun it modifies. This differs from other constuctions such as the M-Numeral Word and M-Adjective Word, in which agreement occurs with the prefix. Moreover, classes 4, 5, and 7 seem to have an optional associative marker (AM); this is further discussed in note 4 below. Table 3 below illustrates this agreement

26 Table 3:Class agreement of M-Demonstrative Word Class Head Noun this (+emphasized) that that over there 1 œ fvø s book '` (xõ 'm`»( '` (xõ la '` (xõ la mdæ ld mcdæ woman '` (xõ 'm`»( '` (xõ la '` (xõ la mdæ 2 a m fvø s books '`æ(aõ 'm`»( '`æ(aõ la '`æ(aõ la mdæ ` mcdæ women '`æ(aõ 'm`»( '`æ(aõ la '`æ(aõ la mdæ 3 ø k` hat 'ø (vdæ'm`»( 'ø (vdæla 'ø (vdæla mdæ. vtæla mdæ ø st ear 'ø (vdæ'm`»( 'ø (vdæla 'ø (vdæla mdæ 4 cd k` hats 'ø (sõ qdm`». 'ø (sõ 'm`»( cd eø q`»ld glasses 'ø (sõ qdm`». 'ø (sõ 'm`»( 5 md mjv` mbõÿ egg 'ø (mõ mdæm`». 'ø (mõ 'm`»( møæœøæmdæ tooth 'ø (mõ mdæm`». 'ø (mõ 'm`»( 'ø (sõ qdæla. 'ø (sõ la 'ø (sõ qdæla. 'ø (sõ la 'ø (mõ mdæla 'ø (mõ mdæla 'ø (sõ qdæla mdæ. 'ø (sõ la mdæ 'ø (sõ qdæla mdæ. 'ø (sõ la mdæ 'ø (mõ mdæla mdæ 'ø (mõ mdæla mdæ 6 l` mjv` mbõÿ eggs '` (xõ 'm`»( '` (xõ la '` (xõ la mdæ l`æœøæmdæ teeth '` (xõ 'm`»( '` (xõ la '` (xõ la mdæ 6a l` m` water '` (lõ 'm`»( '` (lõ la '` (lõ la mdæ l` vd oil '` (lõ 'm`»( '` (lõ la '` (lõ la mdæ 7 fd ix` kn sweet potato 'ø (xõ 'm`»(. 'ø (xõ fdæm`» fdæa` bag 'ø (xõ 'm`»(. 'ø (xõ fdæm`» 8 t ix` kn sweet potatoes 'ø (xõ la. 'ø (xõ fdæla 'ø (xõ la. 'ø (xõ fdæla 'ø (xõ la mdæ. 'ø (xõ fdæla mdæ 'ø (xõ la mdæ. 'ø (xõ fdæla mdæ 'ø (aõ 'm`»( 'ø (aõ la 'ø (aõ la mdæ tæa` bags 'ø (aõ 'm`»( 'ø (aõ la 'ø (aõ la mdæ 9 œ œld goat '` (xõ 'm`»( '` (xõ la '` (xõ la mdæ ld rd monkey '` (xõ 'm`»( '` (xõ la '` (xõ la mdæ 10 œ œld goats 'ø (xõ 'm`»( 'ø (xõ la 'ø (xõ la md ld rd monkeys 'ø (xõ 'm`»( 'ø (xõ la 'ø (xõ la md 9 Notes on Table 3: A. In Table 3 I have included a selection of inanimate and animate objects as well as body parts to show there does not appear to be different sets of M-Demonstrative Words for these different categories of nouns. B. In the gloss of this,,m`» seems to be used for emphasis. For example, the utterance this woman may be ld mcdæ` xõ or ld mcdæ` xõ m`»

27 When I was eliciting data, the emphasized form tended to appear when there was a this/that contrast. C. The vowels in parentheses tend to be elided when the M-Demonstrative Word occurs in a M-Noun Phrase, especially in normal speech. In none of the above data was the final vowel of the head noun elided. Note that examples in the chart from Abangma s texts do not have the initial vowel. D. In classes 4, 5 and 7, there are two possible forms, one with what appears to be an M-associative marker (,qdæ for class 4,,mdæfor class 5, and -fdæ for class 7) affixed to the root (i.e. ø sõ qdæ+ø mõ mdæ+ø xõ fdæ) and one form without the AM. Note, however, that these forms must take a PROXIMITY suffix, otherwise they are not grammatical (cf. examples below). If there is no PROXIMITY suffix, then only the form without the AM is the correct one. Class 4: )cd k`ø sõ qdæ these hats (Correct: cd k` ø sõ orø sõ m`»orø sõ qdæm`») Class 5: )md jn ø mõ mdæ this package (Correct: md jn ø mõ orø mõ m`»orø mõ mdæm`») Class 7: )fd ix` kn ø xõ fdæ this sweet potato (Correct: fd ix` kn ø xõ orø xõ m`»orø xõ fdæm`») E. I would consider these AM affixes to be morphotactically determined, i.e., they are required by the specific construction but have empty realization with respect to the semantic stratum (Fleming 1988:286 further discussed in section on the M-Associative Noun Phrase). 4) The forms with,la far can be used anaphorically, i.e., to refer to information that has already been given. Note the following example from a text on preparing fufu (from language-learning notes): 9) Ld mcdæ `,k l` m,iõ fdæ,rdæ m bgõ ` xõ `æ,jv woman 3s-begin(NonPst) to-turn-? corn REL:9 3s-grind(RelPst) The woman begins to turn the fufu that she has `,sø md l` m` mdæ ld vø 3s-finish-Cond 3s-keep(NonPst) water LOC pot Once finished, she puts water in the pot. ( water = new kõ l` m` lõ la mæmnæ l`æ,aøæ 3s-wait(NonPst) water that:6a so:that 3s-boil(RelNonPst?) She waits for that water to boil. ( that water = given information) Another example can be seen from Elephant and Stream : 10) `,jv mdæ l` m mxõ `,ix` m s ` 3s-arrive(Pst) child stream 3s-step:on(Pst) stone He arrived at a small stream and stepped on a stone. ( stone = new information) md fõ `æ `,fõÿ `,jd crab 3s-ask(Pst) 3s-say(Pst) Crab asked: m cdæ ltæ `æ,ix`,kdæ m s ` mõ md la > what person 3s-step:on-RelNonPst stone that:5 Who stepped on that stone? ( that stone = given information)

28 I have not come across any examples yet where the M-Demonstrative Word is used cataphorically, i.e., to refer to information given ahead

29 4.2.3M-Numeral Word The formula and chart for M-Numeral Word are as follows: M-Numeral Word = P:numeral prefix + C:numeral root R R R R ΧΟΥΝΤΕ ΝΥΜΒΕΡ Μ Νυµεραλ_Ωορδ= Π: Χ: Ρεφ Φρεε Τρανσλατιον νυµεραλ_πρεφιξ νυµεραλ_ροοτ Χουντ Σ ΧΝΤ Μ νυµπφξ Σ ΝΥΜ Μ νυµρτ ΝΓΒΕ σαµε ρανκ ΣΟΧΙΕΤΨ fd,l` 005 Χ7 ονε Χουντ Σ ΧΝΤ Μ νυµπφξ Σ ΝΥΜ Μ νυµρτ ΝΟΝ ΤΕΞΤ τωο εγγσ ΑΤΑ 001 `æ,odæ`æ (ΤΑΠΕ Χ6 τωο 5Α) ℵ I I I I Observations: 1) The M-Numeral Word realizes a S-Count proposition, consisting of S- COUNTED:thing and S-NUMBER:numeral. 2) As with the M-Adjective Word (cf. section 4.2.1), the root remains constant while the prefix varies according to the class of the head noun, which the M-Adjective Word follows. Table 4 below compares forms for singular classes 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 with one another and plural classes 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 with one another (class 6a is for mass nouns and therefore is not included). Table 4:M-Numeral Word Class Head Noun Prefix -l` one -oø æ`æ two -k ø æ three -m Õ Ã four -s`» five 1 j`æo` coin ` -, ` l` œ fvø s book ` -, ` l` a j`æo` coins `æ- -- `æoøæ`æ `ækøæ `æmõã `æs`» a œ fvø s books `æ- -- `æoøæ`æ `ækøæ `æmõã `æs`» 3 ø k` hat øæ- øæl`» ø r` cutlass øæ- øæl`» cd k` hats cd - -- cdæoøæ`æ cdækøæ cdæmõã cdæs`» cd r` cutlasses cd - -- cdæoøæ`æ cdækøæ cdæmõã cdæs`»

30 5 md mjv`mbõÿ egg mdæ- mdæl`» md jn package mdæ, mdæl`»

31 Class Head Noun Prefix -l` one -oø æ`æ two -k ø æ three -m Õ Ã four -s`» five 6 l` mjv`mbõÿ eggs `æ- -- `æoøæ`æ `ækøæ `æmõã `æs`» l` jn packages `æ, -- `æoøæ`æ `ækøæ `æmõã `æs`» 7 fd a`æfdæœ fvø s leaf-of-book ( paper ) fd mnæfdæœ fvø s stick-of-book ( pen ) 8 t a`æœ fvø s leavesbook ( paper ) t mnæœ fvø s sticksbook ( pens ) fdæ- fdæl`» fdæ- fdæl`» næ- -- næoøæ`æ nækøæ næmõã næs`» næ- -- næoøæ`æ nækøæ næmõã næs`» 9 œ œld goat ` -, ` l` ld rgt elephant ` - ` l` œ œld goats æ*øæ -- øæoøæ`æ øækøæ øæmõã øæs`» ld rgt elephants æ*øæ -- øæoøæ`æ øækøæ øæmõã øæs`» 10 Note on Table 4: In class 10, there is a H tone that replaces the L tone on the M-noun root (possible H-spread). This phenomenon has not been observed with any of the other classes. Compare: œ œld ` l` one goat ld rgt ` l` one elephant vs. œ œldæøæoøæ`æ two goats vs. ld rgt æøæoøæ`æ two elephants

32 4.2.4M-Verb Word The formula and chart for the M-Verb Word are as follows: M-Verb Word = P2:{m-00, verb prefix} + P1:verb prefix + C:verb root + F1:verb suffix To facilitate reading, the semantic propositions and functions in the left column are listed alphabetically and according to type, as follows: 1) Event propositions first; 2) other propositions; and 3) functions. R R R R R R ΝΕΓΑΤΕ Αττριβυτιον ΧΣ ΙΝΤΕΝΤ ΤΕΝΣΕ ΙΤΕΜ(Αττβν) ΑΣΠΕΧΤ ΑΤΤΡΙΒΥΤΙΟΝ ΤΕΝΣΕ+ΝΕΓΑΤΙςΕ ΜΕΜΒΕΡ ΑΓΕΝΤ ΠΗΑΣΕ Χλασσιφιχατιον(τηινγ) ΛΟΓΙΧΑΛ_ΡΕΛΑΤΙΟΝ(ΠΡΙΟΡ) ΑΥΤΗΟΡΙΖΕΡ ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ ΠΡΙΟΡ(ΤΑ(σεθ)) ΠΡΟΧΕΣΣΟΡ ΑΥΤΗΟΡΙΖΕΡ ΤΕΝΣΕ ΣΠΕΑΚΕΡ ΧΟΓΝΙΤΙΟΝ ΕΞΠΡΕΣΣΙΟΝ ΕΞΙΣΤΕΝΤΙΑΛ ΑΤΤΡΙΒΥΤΙΟΝ+ΧΗΑΝΓΕ ΟΩΝΕΡ ΩΗΟΛΕ Εξιστεντιαλ ΟΩΝΕΡ ΩΗΟΛΕ ΣΠΑΤΙΑΛ_ΛΟΧΑΤΕ Σπατιαλ_Λοχατιον(τηινγ) Μ ςερβ_ωορδ= Π2: Π1: Χ: Φ1: Ρεφ Φρεε Τρανσλατιον µ 00 ϖερβ_πρεφιξ ϖερβ_ροοτ ϖερβ_συφφιξ ϖερβ_πρεφιξ Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ µ 00 Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Νεγβο, χοµε ΩΕΛΛ 001 ηερε, σιτ 00 bv æ δοων; Ι ηαϖε 00 bv æ σοµετηινγ το 00 χοµε(ιμπ:ιμμ) τελλ ψου. Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ Σ ΤΝΣ Μ ϖσφξ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Τηερε ψου ΩΕΛΛ 002 αρε, αβουτ το æ,ixøæ,fd λεαϖε φορ 2Σ ωηο:γο(ρελ:νον:πστ) ΡΕΛ:ΝΟΝ:ΠΣΤ φορειγν λανδσ ωηερε νονε οφ ουρ πεοπλε αρε. Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ Σ ΠΡ Μ ϖσφξ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Ονχε τηερε, ΩΕΛΛ 004 ψου σηουλδ,ixø,fdæ αλωαψσ βε 2Σ γο(χον ) ΧΟΝ δοινγ ψουρ ωορκ (λιτ.: ιτ ). Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ Σ ΛΡΕΛΝ(ΠΡ) Μ ϖσφξ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Ιφ ψου µαρρψ ΩΕΛΛ α φορειγν,a`,fdæ 012β ωοµαν, ψου 2Σ µαρρψ(χον ) ΧΟΝ ρεµαιν α στρανγερ ιν ψουρ οων λανδ. Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ µ 00 Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ Σ ΧΣ ΙΝΤ Μ ϖσφξ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Σταψ ωελλ; βε ΩΕΛΛ δοινγ ψουρ 00 oxøæ,mdæ 017β ωορκ ωελλ. 00 δο(ιμπ:ανψτ) ΙΜΠ:ΑΝΨΤ Τηατ ισ αλλ Ι 00 ηαδ το σαψ. Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΣΠ Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ Ηε γαϖε Μ ϖπφξ ΙςΟΡΧΕ ανοτηερ λαω `,exøæ 010 3Σ:Χ1,l` πυτ(πστ) ΡΕΠ Εϖεντ(ΑΧΤΙςΙΤΨ) Σ ΑΓ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΠΗΣ Σ ΑΧΤ Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ Ηε φελλ Μ ϖπφξ ΙςΟΡΧΕ ασλεεπ `,aøækd 013 3Σ:Χ1,k`æ σλεεπ(πστ) ΙΝΧΕΠ Εϖεντ(ΧΟΓΝΙΤΙΟΝ) Σ ΠΡΟΧΣΡ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΧΟΓ Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ Ηαϖε ψου ΙςΟΡΧΕ ηεαρδ?,vtæ 011 2Σ ηεαρ(πστ)

33 Εϖεντ(ΧΟΓΝΙΤΙΟΝ) Σ ΠΡΟΧΣΡ Μ µ 00 Σ ΧΟΓ Μ ϖρτ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Τηερε ψου ΩΕΛΛ 002 αρε (λιτ.: 00 føæ σεε ψου 00 føæ 00 σεε(ιμπ:ιμμ) ℵ I I I I I I

34 R R R R R R Μ ςερβ_ωορδ= Π2: Π1: Χ: Φ1: Ρεφ Φρεε Τρανσλατιον Εϖεντ(ΕΞΠΡΕΣΣΙΟΝ) Σ ΣΠΚΡ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΕΞΠΣΝ Μ ϖρτ Σ ΤΝΣ+ΝΕΓ Μ ϖσφξ Ο ΩΟΡΚ Νοβοδψ ωιλλ ΩΕΛΛ 009 θυεστιον ψου. `æ,fõ Õ,fdæ 3Σ:Χ1 ασκ(νεγ:νον:πστ) ΝΕΓ:ΝΟΝ:ΠΣΤ Εϖεντ(ΠΡΟΧΕΣΣ) Σ ΙΤΜ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΤΤΒΝ+ΧΗΝΓ Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ Ηισ βυττοχκσ ΙςΟΡΧΕ ωερε ρεδ. tæ,fø kdæ 014 3Π:Χ8 βεχοµε:ρεδ(αττρ) Αττριβυτιον Σ ΙΤΜ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΤΤΒΝ Μ ϖρτ ΕΛΕΠΗΑΝΤ Τηε φαρµ ωασ & ΣΤΡΕΑΜ ρεαλλψ βιγ. øæ,œø `æ 005 3Σ:Χ5 βιγ(αττρ) Αττριβυτιον Σ ΙΤΜ Μ ϖπφξ Σ Αττβν Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ Σηε ρεµαινεδ ΙςΟΡΧΕ ϖερψ µοοδψ. `,k` 020 3Σ:Χ1 ρεµαιν(πστ) Χλασσιφιχατιον(τηινγ) Σ ΜΕΜ Μ ϖπφξ Σ Χλσσφν(τη) Μ ϖρτ ΝΓΒΕ Øfaø ισ αν ΣΟΧΙΕΤΨ οργανιζατιον. `,kt 002 3Σ:Χ? ισ(αττρ) Εξιστεντιαλ Σ ΕΞΣΤΛ Μ ϖπφξ Σ Εξστλ Μ ϖρτ ΕΛΕΠΗΑΝΤ Τηερε ισ νο & ΣΤΡΕΑΜ ωατερ φορ l`æ,kt*mdf 021 ηιµ... 3Σ:Χ6α ισ(αττρ) Σπατιαλ_Λοχατιον(τηινγ) Σ ΣΛΟΧ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΣΛοχ(τη) Μ ϖρτ ΕΛΕΠΗΑΝΤ Χραβ ωασ τηεν & ΣΤΡΕΑΜ ιν α σµαλλ `,kt 010 στρεαµ. 3Σ:Χ1 ισ(αττρ) ΑΥΤΗΟΡΙΖΕΡ Σ ΑΤΗΡ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΑΤΗΡ Μ ϖρτ Σ ΧΣ ΙΝΤ Μ ϖσφξ Ο ΩΟΡΚ αρε νοτ ΩΕΛΛ µαρρψ α æ,j`,fdæ 012α φορειγν 2Σ δαρε:νοτ(νεγ:ιμπ) ΝΕΓ:ΙΜΠ ωοµαν. ΟΩΝΕΡ Σ ΟΩΝΡ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΟΩΝΡ Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ Øjoøøæηαδ νο ΙςΟΡΧΕ χοϖερ ον ηισ `,ktæ*mdf 016 βυττοχκσ. 3Σ:Χ1 ισ:νοτ(αττρ) ΤΕΝΣΕ Σ ΑΓ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΤΝΣ Μ ϖρτ ΝΟΝ ΤΕΞΤ Τηε βοψ ωασ ΑΤΑ 010 γιϖινγ ηισ ` a æ (ΤΑΠΕ πιγ φοοδ. 3Σ:Χ1 ΠΣΤ 9Α) ΩΗΟΛΕ Σ ΩΗΛ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΩΗΛ Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ Øjoøøæ ηαδ ΙςΟΡΧΕ ρεδ βυττοχκσ. `,kt 014 3Σ:Χ1 ισ(αττρ) ΩΗΟΛΕ Σ ΩΗΛ Μ ϖπφξ Σ ΝΕΓΤ Σ ΩΗΛ Μ ϖρτ ΝΚΠΕΕ Σ...α ηυσβανδ Μ ϖπφξ ΙςΟΡΧΕ ωηο δοεσ νοτ `æ,ktæ*mdf 031 ηαϖε ρεδ 3Σ:Χ1,k`æ ισ(ρελ:νον:πστ) βυττοχκσ... ΡΕΛ:ΝΕΓ ℵ I I I I I I Observations: 1) The above reflects Abangma s proposal for the structure of the verb in Denya, as follows (1987:12):