28. Introducing the Greek Cases 29. Gender

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1 4 NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION The primary goal of this lesson is understanding the concept of inflection (word change) in the Greek noun. The inflection of a noun is called a declension. Nouns of the second declension are studied first because of their greater regularity and because this declension contains the largest number of New Testament nouns. 28. Introducing the Greek Cases In any type of expression where it occurs, a noun (or pronoun) stands in a certain relationship to the other words around it, and this relationship is determined by the meaning we want to convey. Men see apostles and Apostles see men contain exactly the same words but have opposite meanings, which are indicated by the relationship in each sentence of the nouns men and apostles to the verb see. As is normal in English, this relationship is indicated by word order: the subject precedes the verb, and the object follows it, without any change in form. In Greek, where word order has a different function, grammatical relationships are indicated by particular suffixes applied to the nouns. If a noun is the subject of a verb (i.e., if it precedes the verb in a simple English sentence), it must, in Greek, be put into the nominative case with the appropriate suffix. If it is the object of a verb (i.e., if it follows the verb in English), Greek puts it into the accusative case. Thus Men see apostles would be ἄνθρωποι βλέπουσιν ἀποστόλους, where the suffixes -οι (nominative plural) and -ους (accusative plural) indicate subject and object, respectively. Case in Greek means that it is not the order of words, as in English, that decides the meaning of a sentence. The subject will not always be found before the verb, nor will the object always be found after the verb. In Greek it is the case form that decides which word is the subject or the object. Greek has four basic cases: (1) The nominative, representing the subject ( Men see apostles ). (2) The genitive, representing the possessor ( The wisdom of men ). (3) The dative, representing the indirect object ( He gave gifts to men ). (4) The accusative, representing the object ( Apostles see men ). The vocative, which represents the person or thing addressed ( Forward, men!), is not widely used. In English, the only surviving case ending in nouns is that of the genitive (e.g., men s, boy s). Elsewhere the function of a noun is shown by its position (as with Men see apostles and Apostles see men ), or by a preposition: The wisdom of men (for the genitive case) or He gave gifts to men (for the dative case). In the latter two instances, notice that in English we can also say with the same meaning, Men s wisdom and He gave men gifts, respectively. 29. Gender In addition to case, Greek nouns are also said to have gender. In English we observe natural gender: man is masculine, girl is feminine, and car is neuter. When referring to these, we would say he, she, and it, respectively. Greek observes natural gender with living beings (generally), but other nouns, which may describe things, qualities, and so on, are not necessarily neuter. For example, ἀνήρ ( man ) is masculine

2 and γυνή ( woman ) is feminine, but θάνατος ( death ) is masculine, ἁμαρτία ( sin ) is feminine, and τέκνον ( child ) is neuter. Generally, we cannot see why a particular noun is a particular gender, but the gender of individual nouns is not difficult to learn since in most instances it is shown by its ending. 30. Second Declension Nouns Because Greek indicates case function by means of different forms, Greek nouns can be grouped together according to the manner in which their endings change. These changes indicate both case and number. Case, as we have seen, involves the function of the noun in its relation to the verb or other parts of the sentence. Number indicates whether the noun is singular or plural. Both case and number are indicated by different forms called case-number suffixes. Nouns with the same pattern of endings are called declensions (from Lat. declino, I fall away [i.e., from the nominative case] ). There are three basic declensions in Greek. The second declension is introduced here because it is the easiest of the three to learn and because it contains a larger number of words than the others. The second declension may be divided into two main groups: (1) nouns whose nominative singular ends in -ος, which, with a few exceptions, are masculine; and (2) nouns whose nominative singular ends in -ον, which are all neuters. Both groups have identical endings except for the nominative, vocative, and accusative. Compare the declension of ὁ ἄνθρωπος ( man ), a masculine noun, with the declension of τὸ δῶρον ( gift ), a neuter noun: Singular Masculine Neuter N. ἄνθρωπος a man δῶρον a gift G. ἀνθρώπου of a man δώρου of a gift D. ἀνθρώπῳ to a man δώρῳ to a gift A. ἄνθρωπον a man δῶρον a gift V. ἄνθρωπε man δῶρον gift Plural Masculine Neuter N.V. ἄνθρωποι men δῶρα gifts G. ἀνθρώπων of men δώρων of gifts D. ἀνθρώποις to men δώροις to gifts A. ἀνθρώπους men δῶρα gifts

3 By removing the -ος from ἄνθρωπος, we obtain the stem ἄνθρωπ-. This stem remains constant when the various endings (i.e., the case-number suffixes) are added to it. These endings may be used with any masculine noun given in the vocabulary to this lesson. The stem of δῶρον is δῶρ-. Notice that the nominative, vocative, and accusative of neuter nouns are identical in both the singular and the plural (these forms are underlined). δῶρον is the paradigm word for all the neuter nouns given in the vocabulary to this lesson. It should be noted that neuter plural nouns regularly take singular verbs. Omitting names and compound forms, there are 595 second declension nouns in the New Testament, 347 of which are masculine and follow the declension ἄνθρωπος, and 196 of which are neuter and follow the declension of δῶρον. There are also several feminine nouns of the second declension. These nouns follow the declension of ἄνθρωπος but use the feminine definite article (e.g., ἡ ὁδός, the way ; see John 14:6). Some second declension nouns are irregular in their formation. For example, the name Jesus is declined as follows: N. Ἰησοῦς; G.D.V. Ἰησοῦ; A. Ἰησοῦν. 31. Additional Uses of the Cases Although the genitive case usually expresses possession, it has many other important uses. One of these is the ablatival genitive, which indicates source: ἄγω δοῦλον οἴκου, I lead a servant from a house. The dative also has many other important uses, including the locative dative (ἀγρῷ, in a field ), the instrumental dative (λόγῳ, by a word ), and the dative of personal advantage (ἀνθρώπῳ, for a man ). These and other uses of the cases must be learned by observation. 32. Complements As a copulative verb (see 23), εἰμί equates what follows with what precedes. It therefore requires a complement in the nominative case (to complete the idea) instead of an object in the accusative case. If it is remembered that εἰμί is virtually equivalent to an equal sign (=), its use will be easily understood: βλέπω ἄνθρωπον. I see a man. εἰμὶ ἄνθρωπος. I am a man (i.e., I = man ). 33. The Use of the Definite Article Greek has no indefinite article (Eng. a or an ). Thus ἄνθρωπος means man or a man. When Greek wants to indicate that a noun is definite, it places the definite article in front of it. Thus ὁ ἄνθρωπος means the man. In general, the presence of the article emphasizes particular identity, while the absence of the article emphasizes quality or characteristics. In Luke 18:13, for example, the tax collector, by using the article, identifies himself as the sinner, a point largely missed in English translations. On the other hand, Paul s claim in Galatians 1:1 to be an apostle emphasizes the dignity and authority of his apostleship without excluding others from that office. Where no article appears in Greek, the indefinite article a or an may be used in English when the context suggests this translation. Sometimes an English definite article has to be supplied where Greek lacks the article (as in John 1:1: in the beginning ).

4 Conversely, Greek frequently uses the article with abstract nouns where English usage omits the article (as in 1 Corinthians 13:13: the greatest of these is [the] love ). The importance of the article for understanding the New Testament is treated in greater detail in Lesson 26. A noun that has an article is called an arthrous noun (from ἄρθρον, article ). A noun that has no article is called an anarthrous (i.e., not-arthrous ) noun. 34. Conjunctions A conjunction (from Lat. coniugo, I join together ) is a word whose function is to join together words, phrases, clauses, and sentences: the apostle and the slave ; the law or the gift ; he goes but they come ; etc. Conjunctions are classified either as coordinate (from Lat. cum, with, plus ordinatus, placed in order ) or as subordinate (from Lat. sub, under ). Coordinate conjunctions connect parallel words or clauses. They may show such relationships as connection ( and ), contrast ( but ), or consequence ( therefore ). Subordinate conjunctions introduce clauses that are dependent on some other clause. Subordinate clauses may be conditional ( if ), concessive ( although ), temporal ( when ), causal ( because ), final ( in order that ), or consecutive ( that ). This lesson contains three common New Testament coordinating conjunctions: καί ( and ), occurring 8,947 times; δέ ( now, but ), occurring 2,771 times; and ἀλλά ( but ), occurring 635 times. καί is the basic or unmarked means of conjoining sentences and implies continuity with the preceding context. δέ marks the introduction of a new and significant development in the story or argument. ἀλλά marks a contrast between sentences and bears more semantic weight than either δέ or καί. i. δέ is postpositive in Greek, i.e., it cannot stand first in its clause or sentence. It is, however, almost always translated first in English. ii. The final vowel of ἀλλά is elided before a word beginning with a vowel or diphthong, as in βλέπεις, ἀλλʼ ἀκούω, You see, but I hear. iii. Greek does not have a conjunction meaning both. Instead, καί is used, as in εἰμὶ καὶ υἱὸς καὶ δοῦλος, I am both a son and a servant. καί may also be used adverbially, in which case it is translated also or even. Compare Matt 10:30: But even [καὶ] the hairs of your head are all numbered. 35. Greek Word Order As we have seen, word order in Greek is far more flexible than in English. New Testament writers typically placed the subject after the verb (e.g., βλέπει ἄνθρωπος ἀπόστολον, A man sees an apostle ). This tendency to place the verb at the beginning of its clause is probably due to Semitic influence, the normal word order in biblical Hebrew being verb, subject, object. Elements of the sentence that are fronted (moved forward) often receive special emphasis: ἀπόστολον βλέπει ἄνθρωπος would imply It is an apostle that a man sees. Similarly, the normal position for genitives is after their noun: εἰμὶ δοῦλος θεοῦ, I am a servant of God. Here emphasis would be achieved by prepositioning the genitive: εἰμὶ θεοῦ δοῦλος, I am God s servant. The significance of Greek word order is discussed more fully in Lesson 26.

5 36. Vocabulary a. Masculine nouns of the second declension. ἄγγελος, ὁ angel, messenger (angelic) ἀγρός, field (agrarian) ἀδελφός, ὁ brother, fellow believer (Philadelphia) ἁμαρτωλός, ὁ sinner (hamartiology [the study of sin]) ἄνθρωπος, ὁ man, person (anthropology) ἀπόστολος, ὁ apostle, messenger (apostolic) διάκονος, ὁ minister (deacon) δοῦλος, ὁ servant, slave θάνατος, ὁ death (thanatology [the study of death and dying]) θεός, ὁ God, god (theology) Ἰησοῦς, ὁ Jesus κόσμος, ὁ world (cosmic) κύριος, ὁ Lord, master (kyrie eleison, Lord, have mercy ) λίθος, ὁ stone (lithography) λόγος, ὁ word, message (logical) νόμος, ὁ law (antinomian) οἶκος, ὁ house, household (economy) ὄχλος, ὁ crowd (ochlocracy [mob rule]) υἱός, ὁ son Χριστός, ὁ Christ b. Neuter nouns of the second declension. δῶρον, τό gift ( δο, donate) ἔργον, τό work (erg [a unit of work], cf. energy) εὐαγγέλιον, τό gospel (evangelical) ἱερόν, τό temple (hierarchy) τέκνον, τό child c. Feminine nouns of the second declension. ἔρημος, ἡ wilderness, desert (hermit) ὁδός, ἡ road, way (odometer) d. Additional -ω verbs. γινώσκω I know ( γνο, Gnostic) λαμβάνω I take, I receive ( λαβ, labyrinth) λέγω I say, I speak (legend) φέρω I bring, I bear (Christopher [ bearer of Christ ]) e. Conjunctions. ἀλλά δέ καί καὶ καί but now, but and, also, even both and

6 37. Exercises a. Read the lesson carefully. Make use of the lesson material to gain an understanding of declension. This will consolidate your overall understanding of Greek nouns. Learn by heart the paradigms of ἄνθρωπος and δῶρον, carefully noting where they differ. b. Memorize the vocabulary to this lesson. Remember to study the vocabularies in accordance with the instructions given in Lesson 3. c. Translate the sentences given below. Since these sentences are more difficult than those in Lesson 3, it is necessary to approach them in a logical and systematic way. The following steps are suggested: (1) Mark all finite verbs. This will indicate the number of clauses in the sentence. (2) Taking each clause separately, determine how each word relates to the finite verb in its clause (e.g., look for a subject in the nominative case, an object in the accusative case). (3) Finally, observe how the clauses are related to each other, and work out the overall meaning of the sentence. For example, in sentence (1) below, γράφει is the only finite verb, and therefore we have only one clause ( he writes ). The noun δοῦλος is nominative and therefore must be the subject of γράφει ( a servant writes ). The noun νόμον is accusative and therefore is the object of γράφει ( writes a law ). Putting all this together, we arrive at the meaning of the sentence: A servant writes a law. 1. γράφει δοῦλος νόμον. 2. γινώσκετε θάνατον. 3. λύουσιν ἀδελφοὶ δούλους. 4. φέρουσιν υἱοὶ δῶρα. 5. γράφεις λόγους ἀποστόλοις. 6. βλέπει υἱὸς ἱερὰ καὶ οἴκους. 7. οὐ λέγει ἀδελφὸς λόγον ἀνθρώπῳ. 8. φέρει δοῦλος δῶρον ἀποστόλῳ. 9. γινώσκομεν ὁδὸν ἱερῷ. 10. οὐκ ἀκούομεν λόγους θανάτου. 11. λέγεις δούλοις, ἀλλὰ λέγω ἀδελφοῖς. 12. λύουσιν υἱοὶ δούλους ἀποστόλων. 13. καὶ ἀποστόλοις καὶ ἀνθρώποις λέγομεν λόγους θανάτου. 14. οὐ γράφετε λόγους υἱοῖς. 15. ἀκούει τέκνα λόγους οἴκῳ, ἀλλʼ ἀκούουσιν ὄχλοι λόγους ἐρήμῳ. 16. γινώσκει ἀποστόλους καὶ φέρει δῶρα τέκνοις. 17. δούλους βλέψεις, ἀνθρώπους δὲ βλέψομεν. 18. σώζουσιν ἀπόστολοι ἀδελφούς. 19. εἰμὶ ἀπόστολος, ἀλλʼ υἱοί ἐστε. 20. δοῦλοί ἐσμεν, ἀλλὰ δούλους διδάξομεν. 21. ἐστὲ ἄγγελοι καὶ φέρετε δῶρα ἀνθρώποις. 22. σώσουσιν ἀπόστολοι ἀνθρώπους θανάτου.

7 1 1 Black, David Alan: Learn to Read New Testament Greek. 3rd ed. Nashville, TN : B&H Publishing Group, 2009, S. 26

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