Lecture 21: Properties and robustness of LSE
|
|
- Κῆρες Μητσοτάκης
- 5 χρόνια πριν
- Προβολές:
Transcript
1 Lecture 21: Properties and robustness of LSE BLUE: Robustness of LSE against normality We now study properties of l τ β and σ 2 under assumption A2, i.e., without the normality assumption on ε. From Theorem 3.6 and the proof of Theorem 3.7(ii), l τ β (with an l R(Z )) and σ 2 are still unbiased without normality. In what sense are l τ β and σ 2 optimal beyond being unbiased? Some discussion about σ 2 can be found in Rao (1973, p. 228). In general, Var(l τ β) = l τ (Z τ Z ) Z τ Var(ε)Z (Z τ Z ) l. If l R(Z ) and Var(ε) = σ 2 I n (assumption A2), then by the property of generalized inverse matrix, Var(l τ β) = σ 2 l τ (Z τ Z ) l which attains the Cramér-Rao lower bound under assumption A1. We have the following result for the LSE l τ β. UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
2 Theorem 3.9 Consider linear model with assumption A2. X = Z β + ε. (1) (i) A necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of a linear unbiased estimator of l τ β (i.e., an unbiased estimator that is linear in X) is l R(Z ). (ii) (Gauss-Markov theorem). If l R(Z ), then the LSE l τ β is the best linear unbiased estimator (BLUE) of l τ β in the sense that it has the minimum variance in the class of linear unbiased estimators of l τ β. Proof of (i) The sufficiency has been established in Theorem 3.6. Suppose now a linear function of X, c τ X with c R n, is unbiased for l τ β. Then l τ β = E(c τ X) = c τ EX = c τ Z β. Since this equality holds for all β, l = Z τ c, i.e., l R(Z ). UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
3 Proof of (ii) Let l R(Z ) = R(Z τ Z ). Then l = (Z τ Z )ζ for some ζ and l τ β = ζ τ (Z τ Z ) β = ζ τ Z τ X. Let c τ X be any linear unbiased estimator of l τ β. From the proof of (i), Z τ c = l, and Hence Cov(ζ τ Z τ X,c τ X ζ τ Z τ X) = E(X τ Z ζ c τ X) E(X τ Z ζ ζ τ Z τ X) = σ 2 tr(z ζ c τ ) + β τ Z τ Z ζ c τ Z β σ 2 tr(z ζ ζ τ Z τ ) β τ Z τ Z ζ ζ τ Z τ Z β = σ 2 ζ τ l + (l τ β) 2 σ 2 ζ τ l (l τ β) 2 = 0. Var(c τ X) = Var(c τ X ζ τ Z τ X + ζ τ Z τ X) = Var(c τ X ζ τ Z τ X) + Var(ζ τ Z τ X) + 2 Cov(ζ τ Z τ X,c τ X ζ τ Z τ X) = Var(c τ X ζ τ Z τ X) + Var(l τ β) Var(l τ β). UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
4 Robustness of LSE against violation of Var(ε) = σ 2 I n Consider linear model (5) under assumption A3 (E(ε) = 0 and Var(ε) is an unknown matrix). An interesting question is under what conditions on Var(ε) is the LSE of l τ β with l R(Z ) still the BLUE. If l τ β is still the BLUE, then we say that l τ β, considered as a BLUE, is robust against violation of assumption A2. A procedure having certain properties under an assumption is said to be robust against violation of the assumption iff the procedure still has the same properties when the assumption is (slightly) violated. For example, the LSE of l τ β with l R(Z ), as an unbiased estimator, is robust against violation of assumption A1 or A2, since the LSE is unbiased as long as E(ε) = 0, which can be always assumed. On the other hand, the LSE as a UMVUE may not be robust against violation of assumption A1. UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
5 Theorem 3.10 Consider model (5) with assumption A3. The following are equivalent. (a) l τ β is the BLUE of l τ β for any l R(Z ). (b) E(l τ βη τ X) = 0 for any l R(Z ) and any η such that E(η τ X) = 0. (c) Z τ Var(ε)U = 0, where U is a matrix such that Z τ U = 0 and R(U τ ) + R(Z τ ) = R n. (d) Var(ε) = Z Λ 1 Z τ + UΛ 2 U τ for some Λ 1 and Λ 2. (e) The matrix Z (Z τ Z ) Z τ Var(ε) is symmetric. Proof We first show that (a) and (b) are equivalent, which is an analogue of Theorem 3.2(i). Suppose that (b) holds. Let l R(Z ). If c τ X is unbiased for l τ β, then E(η τ X) = 0 with η = c Z (Z τ Z ) l. Hence, (b) implies (a) because UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
6 Proof (continued) Var(c τ X) = Var(c τ X l τ β + l τ β) = Var(c τ X l τ (Z τ Z ) Z τ X + l τ β) = Var(η τ X + l τ β) = Var(η τ X) + Var(l τ β) + 2 Cov(η τ X,l τ β) = Var(η τ X) + Var(l τ β) + 2E(l τ βη τ X) = Var(η τ X) + Var(l τ β) Var(l τ β). Suppose now that there are l R(Z ) and η such that E(η τ X) = 0 but δ = E(l τ βη τ X) 0. Let c t = tη + Z (Z τ Z ) l. From the previous proof, Var(c τ t X) = t2 Var(η τ X) + Var(l τ β) + 2δt. As long as δ 0, there exists a t such that Var(ct τ X) < Var(lτ β). UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
7 Proof (continued) This shows that l τ β cannot be a BLUE and, therefore, (a) implies (b). Next, we show that (b) implies (c). Suppose that (b) holds. Since l R(Z ), l = Z τ γ for some γ. Let η R(U τ ). Then E(η τ X) = η τ Z β = 0 and, hence, 0 = E(l τ βη τ X) = E[γ τ Z (Z τ Z ) Z τ XX τ η] = γ τ Z (Z τ Z ) Z τ Var(ε)η. Since this equality holds for all l R(Z ), it holds for all γ. Thus, Z (Z τ Z ) Z τ Var(ε)U = 0, which implies since Z τ Z (Z τ Z ) Z τ = Z τ. Thus, (c) holds. Z τ Z (Z τ Z ) Z τ Var(ε)U = Z τ Var(ε)U = 0, UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
8 Proof (continued) Next, we show that (c) implies (d). We need to use the following facts from the theory of linear algebra: there exists a nonsingular matrix C such that Var(ε) = CC τ and C = ZC 1 + UC 2 for some matrices C j (since R(U τ ) + R(Z τ ) = R n ). Let Λ 1 = C 1 C τ 1, Λ 2 = C 2 C τ 2, and Λ 3 = C 1 C τ 2. Then Var(ε) = Z Λ 1 Z τ + UΛ 2 U τ + Z Λ 3 U τ + UΛ τ 3 Z τ (2) and Z τ Var(ε)U = Z τ Z Λ 3 U τ U, which is 0 if (c) holds. Hence, (c) implies 0 = Z (Z τ Z ) Z τ Z Λ 3 U τ U(U τ U) U τ = Z Λ 3 U τ, which with (2) implies (d). We now show that (d) implies (e). If (d) holds, then Z (Z τ Z ) Z τ Var(ε) = Z Λ 1 Z τ, which is symmetric. Hence (d) implies (e). To complete the proof, we need to show that (e) implies (b), which is left as an exercise. UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
9 As a corollary of this theorem, the following result shows when the UMVUE s in model (5) with assumption A1 are robust against the violation of Var(ε) = σ 2 I n. Corollary 3.3 Consider model (5) with a full rank Z, ε = N n (0,Σ), and an unknown positive definite matrix Σ. Then l τ β is a UMVUE of l τ β for any l R p iff one of (b)-(e) in Theorem 3.10 holds. Example 3.16 Consider model (5) with β replaced by a random vector β that is independent of ε. Such a model is called a linear model with random coefficients. Suppose that Var(ε) = σ 2 I n and E( β) = β. Then X = Z β + Z ( β β) + ε = Z β + e, (3) where e = Z ( β β) + ε satisfies E(e) = 0 and UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
10 Since Var(e) = Z Var( β)z τ + σ 2 I n. Z (Z τ Z ) Z τ Var(e) = Z Var( β)z τ + σ 2 Z (Z τ Z ) Z τ is symmetric, by Theorem 3.10, the LSE l τ β under model (3) is the BLUE for any l τ β, l R(Z ). If Z is of full rank and ε is normal, then, by Corollary 3.3, l τ β is the UMVUE of l τ β for any l R p. Example 3.17 (Random effects models) Suppose that X ij = µ + A i + e ij, j = 1,...,n i,i = 1,...,m, (4) where µ R is an unknown parameter, A i s are i.i.d. random variables having mean 0 and variance σa 2, e ij s are i.i.d. random errors with mean 0 and variance σ 2, and A i s and e ij s are independent. Model (4) is called a one-way random effects model and A i s are unobserved random effects. UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
11 Model (4) is a special case of model (5) with ε ij = A i + e ij and Var(ε) = σ 2 a Σ + σ 2 I n, where Σ is a block diagonal matrix whose ith block is J ni Jn τ i and J k is the k-vector of ones. Under this model, Z = J n, n = m i=1 n i, and Z (Z τ Z ) Z τ = n 1 J n Jn. τ Note that n 1 J n1 Jn τ 1 n 2 J n1 Jn τ 2 n m J n1 J τ n m J n JnΣ τ = n 1 J n2 Jn τ 1 n 2 J n2 Jn τ 2 n m J n2 Jn τ m, n 1 J nm Jn τ 1 n 2 J nm Jn τ 2 n m J nm Jn τ m which is symmetric if and only if n 1 = n 2 = = n m. Since J n Jn τ Var(ε) is symmetric if and only if J n JnΣ τ is symmetric, a necessary and sufficient condition for the LSE of µ to be the BLUE is that all n i s are the same. This condition is also necessary and sufficient for the LSE of µ to be the UMVUE when ε ij s are normal. UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
12 In some cases, we are interested in some (not all) linear functions of β. For example, consider l τ β with l R(H), where H is an n p matrix such that R(H) R(Z ). Proposition 3.4 Consider model (5) with assumption A3. Suppose that H is a matrix such that R(H) R(Z ). A necessary and sufficient condition for the LSE l τ β to be the BLUE of l τ β for any l R(H) is H(Z τ Z ) Z τ Var(ε)U = 0, where U is the same as that in (c) of Theorem Example 3.18 Consider model (5) with assumption A3 and Z = (H 1 H 2 ), where H τ 1 H 2 = 0. Suppose that under the reduced model X = H 1 β 1 + ε, l τ β 1 is the BLUE for any l τ β 1, l R(H 1 ) UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
13 Example 3.18 (continued) and that under the reduced model X = H 2 β 2 + ε, l τ β 2 is not a BLUE for some l τ β 2, l R(H 2 ), where β = (β 1,β 2 ) and β j s are LSE s under the reduced models. Let H = (H 1 0) be n p. Note that H(Z τ Z ) Z τ Var(ε)U = H 1 (H τ 1 H 1) H τ 1 Var(ε)U, which is 0 by Theorem 3.10 for the U given in (c) of Theorem 3.10, and Z (Z τ Z ) Z τ Var(ε)U = H 2 (H τ 2 H 2) H τ 2 Var(ε)U, which is not 0 by Theorem This implies that some LSE l τ β is not a BLUE of l τ β but l τ β is the BLUE of l τ β if l R(H). UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
14 Asymptotic properties of LSE Without normality on ε or Var(ε) = σ 2 I n, properties of the LSE may be derived under the asymptotic framework. Theorem 3.11 (Consistency) Consider model X = Z β + ε (5) under assumption A3 (E(ε) = 0 and Var(ε) is an unknown matrix). Consider the LSE l τ β with l R(Z ) for every n. Suppose that sup n λ + [ Var(ε)] <, where λ + [A] is the largest eigenvalue of the matrix A, and that lim n λ + [(Z τ Z ) ] = 0. Then l τ β is consistent in mse for any l R(Z ). Proof The result follows from the fact that l τ β is unbiased and Var(l τ β) = l τ (Z τ Z ) Z τ Var(ε)Z (Z τ Z ) l λ + [ Var(ε)]l τ (Z τ Z ) l. UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
15 Without the normality assumption on ε, the exact distribution of l τ β is very hard to obtain. The asymptotic distribution of l τ β is derived in the following result. Theorem 3.12 Consider model (5) with assumption A3. Suppose that 0 < inf n λ [ Var(ε)], where λ [A] is the smallest eigenvalue of the matrix A, and that lim max Z n i τ (Z τ Z ) Z i = 0. (6) 1 i n Suppose further that n = k j=1 m j for some integers k, m j, j = 1,...,k, with m j s bounded by a fixed integer m, ε = (ξ 1,...,ξ k ), ξ j R m j, and ξ j s are independent. (i) If sup i E ε i 2+δ <, then for / any l R(Z ), l τ ( β β) Var(l τ β) d N(0,1). (7) (ii) Result (7) holds for any l R(Z ) if, when m i = m j, 1 i < j k, ξ i and ξ j have the same distribution. UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
16 Proof For l R(Z ), and l τ (Z τ Z ) Z τ Z β l τ β = 0 l τ ( β β) = l τ (Z τ Z ) Z τ ε = k j=1 c τ nj ξ j, where c nj is the m j -vector whose components are l τ (Z τ Z ) Z i, i = k j 1 + 1,...,k j, k 0 = 0, and k j = j t=1 m t, j = 1,...,k. Note that Also, k j=1 c nj 2 = l τ (Z τ Z ) Z τ Z (Z τ Z ) l = l τ (Z τ Z ) l. (8) max c nj 2 m max 1 j k 1 i n [lτ (Z τ Z ) Z i ] 2 ml τ (Z τ Z ) l max Z i τ (Z τ Z ) Z i, 1 i n which, together with (8) and condition (6), implies that UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
17 Proof (continued) lim n ( max c nj 2 1 j k / k The results then follow from Corollary 1.3. Remarks ) c nj 2 = 0. j=1 Under the conditions of Theorem 3.12, Var(ε) is a diagonal block matrix with Var(ξ j ) as the jth diagonal block, which includes the case of independent ε i s as a special case. Exercise 80 shows that condition (6) is almost a necessary condition for the consistency of the LSE. Lemma 3.3 The following are sufficient conditions for (6). (a) λ + [(Z τ Z ) ] 0 and Z τ n (Z τ Z ) Z n 0, as n. (b) There is an increasing sequence {a n } such that a n, a n /a n+1 1, and Z τ Z /a n converges to a positive definite matrix. UW-Madison (Statistics) Stat 709 Lecture / 17
Ordinal Arithmetic: Addition, Multiplication, Exponentiation and Limit
Ordinal Arithmetic: Addition, Multiplication, Exponentiation and Limit Ting Zhang Stanford May 11, 2001 Stanford, 5/11/2001 1 Outline Ordinal Classification Ordinal Addition Ordinal Multiplication Ordinal
Διαβάστε περισσότερα2 Composition. Invertible Mappings
Arkansas Tech University MATH 4033: Elementary Modern Algebra Dr. Marcel B. Finan Composition. Invertible Mappings In this section we discuss two procedures for creating new mappings from old ones, namely,
Διαβάστε περισσότεραST5224: Advanced Statistical Theory II
ST5224: Advanced Statistical Theory II 2014/2015: Semester II Tutorial 7 1. Let X be a sample from a population P and consider testing hypotheses H 0 : P = P 0 versus H 1 : P = P 1, where P j is a known
Διαβάστε περισσότεραOther Test Constructions: Likelihood Ratio & Bayes Tests
Other Test Constructions: Likelihood Ratio & Bayes Tests Side-Note: So far we have seen a few approaches for creating tests such as Neyman-Pearson Lemma ( most powerful tests of H 0 : θ = θ 0 vs H 1 :
Διαβάστε περισσότεραStatistical Inference I Locally most powerful tests
Statistical Inference I Locally most powerful tests Shirsendu Mukherjee Department of Statistics, Asutosh College, Kolkata, India. shirsendu st@yahoo.co.in So far we have treated the testing of one-sided
Διαβάστε περισσότεραC.S. 430 Assignment 6, Sample Solutions
C.S. 430 Assignment 6, Sample Solutions Paul Liu November 15, 2007 Note that these are sample solutions only; in many cases there were many acceptable answers. 1 Reynolds Problem 10.1 1.1 Normal-order
Διαβάστε περισσότεραEvery set of first-order formulas is equivalent to an independent set
Every set of first-order formulas is equivalent to an independent set May 6, 2008 Abstract A set of first-order formulas, whatever the cardinality of the set of symbols, is equivalent to an independent
Διαβάστε περισσότεραLecture 34: Ridge regression and LASSO
Lecture 34: Ridge regression and LASSO Ridge regression Consider linear model X = Z β + ε, β R p and Var(ε) = σ 2 I n. The LSE is obtained from the minimization problem min X Z β R β 2 (1) p A type of
Διαβάστε περισσότερα6.3 Forecasting ARMA processes
122 CHAPTER 6. ARMA MODELS 6.3 Forecasting ARMA processes The purpose of forecasting is to predict future values of a TS based on the data collected to the present. In this section we will discuss a linear
Διαβάστε περισσότεραChapter 6: Systems of Linear Differential. be continuous functions on the interval
Chapter 6: Systems of Linear Differential Equations Let a (t), a 2 (t),..., a nn (t), b (t), b 2 (t),..., b n (t) be continuous functions on the interval I. The system of n first-order differential equations
Διαβάστε περισσότεραTridiagonal matrices. Gérard MEURANT. October, 2008
Tridiagonal matrices Gérard MEURANT October, 2008 1 Similarity 2 Cholesy factorizations 3 Eigenvalues 4 Inverse Similarity Let α 1 ω 1 β 1 α 2 ω 2 T =......... β 2 α 1 ω 1 β 1 α and β i ω i, i = 1,...,
Διαβάστε περισσότεραLecture 34 Bootstrap confidence intervals
Lecture 34 Bootstrap confidence intervals Confidence Intervals θ: an unknown parameter of interest We want to find limits θ and θ such that Gt = P nˆθ θ t If G 1 1 α is known, then P θ θ = P θ θ = 1 α
Διαβάστε περισσότεραProblem Set 3: Solutions
CMPSCI 69GG Applied Information Theory Fall 006 Problem Set 3: Solutions. [Cover and Thomas 7.] a Define the following notation, C I p xx; Y max X; Y C I p xx; Ỹ max I X; Ỹ We would like to show that C
Διαβάστε περισσότεραFractional Colorings and Zykov Products of graphs
Fractional Colorings and Zykov Products of graphs Who? Nichole Schimanski When? July 27, 2011 Graphs A graph, G, consists of a vertex set, V (G), and an edge set, E(G). V (G) is any finite set E(G) is
Διαβάστε περισσότεραNowhere-zero flows Let be a digraph, Abelian group. A Γ-circulation in is a mapping : such that, where, and : tail in X, head in
Nowhere-zero flows Let be a digraph, Abelian group. A Γ-circulation in is a mapping : such that, where, and : tail in X, head in : tail in X, head in A nowhere-zero Γ-flow is a Γ-circulation such that
Διαβάστε περισσότεραEE512: Error Control Coding
EE512: Error Control Coding Solution for Assignment on Finite Fields February 16, 2007 1. (a) Addition and Multiplication tables for GF (5) and GF (7) are shown in Tables 1 and 2. + 0 1 2 3 4 0 0 1 2 3
Διαβάστε περισσότεραConcrete Mathematics Exercises from 30 September 2016
Concrete Mathematics Exercises from 30 September 2016 Silvio Capobianco Exercise 1.7 Let H(n) = J(n + 1) J(n). Equation (1.8) tells us that H(2n) = 2, and H(2n+1) = J(2n+2) J(2n+1) = (2J(n+1) 1) (2J(n)+1)
Διαβάστε περισσότεραExample Sheet 3 Solutions
Example Sheet 3 Solutions. i Regular Sturm-Liouville. ii Singular Sturm-Liouville mixed boundary conditions. iii Not Sturm-Liouville ODE is not in Sturm-Liouville form. iv Regular Sturm-Liouville note
Διαβάστε περισσότεραHomework 3 Solutions
Homework 3 Solutions Igor Yanovsky (Math 151A TA) Problem 1: Compute the absolute error and relative error in approximations of p by p. (Use calculator!) a) p π, p 22/7; b) p π, p 3.141. Solution: For
Διαβάστε περισσότεραLecture 12: Pseudo likelihood approach
Lecture 12: Pseudo likelihood approach Pseudo MLE Let X 1,...,X n be a random sample from a pdf in a family indexed by two parameters θ and π with likelihood l(θ,π). The method of pseudo MLE may be viewed
Διαβάστε περισσότερα= λ 1 1 e. = λ 1 =12. has the properties e 1. e 3,V(Y
Stat 50 Homework Solutions Spring 005. (a λ λ λ 44 (b trace( λ + λ + λ 0 (c V (e x e e λ e e λ e (λ e by definition, the eigenvector e has the properties e λ e and e e. (d λ e e + λ e e + λ e e 8 6 4 4
Διαβάστε περισσότεραPhys460.nb Solution for the t-dependent Schrodinger s equation How did we find the solution? (not required)
Phys460.nb 81 ψ n (t) is still the (same) eigenstate of H But for tdependent H. The answer is NO. 5.5.5. Solution for the tdependent Schrodinger s equation If we assume that at time t 0, the electron starts
Διαβάστε περισσότεραSCITECH Volume 13, Issue 2 RESEARCH ORGANISATION Published online: March 29, 2018
Journal of rogressive Research in Mathematics(JRM) ISSN: 2395-028 SCITECH Volume 3, Issue 2 RESEARCH ORGANISATION ublished online: March 29, 208 Journal of rogressive Research in Mathematics www.scitecresearch.com/journals
Διαβάστε περισσότερα5. Choice under Uncertainty
5. Choice under Uncertainty Daisuke Oyama Microeconomics I May 23, 2018 Formulations von Neumann-Morgenstern (1944/1947) X: Set of prizes Π: Set of probability distributions on X : Preference relation
Διαβάστε περισσότεραUniform Convergence of Fourier Series Michael Taylor
Uniform Convergence of Fourier Series Michael Taylor Given f L 1 T 1 ), we consider the partial sums of the Fourier series of f: N 1) S N fθ) = ˆfk)e ikθ. k= N A calculation gives the Dirichlet formula
Διαβάστε περισσότεραORDINAL ARITHMETIC JULIAN J. SCHLÖDER
ORDINAL ARITHMETIC JULIAN J. SCHLÖDER Abstract. We define ordinal arithmetic and show laws of Left- Monotonicity, Associativity, Distributivity, some minor related properties and the Cantor Normal Form.
Διαβάστε περισσότεραA Note on Intuitionistic Fuzzy. Equivalence Relation
International Mathematical Forum, 5, 2010, no. 67, 3301-3307 A Note on Intuitionistic Fuzzy Equivalence Relation D. K. Basnet Dept. of Mathematics, Assam University Silchar-788011, Assam, India dkbasnet@rediffmail.com
Διαβάστε περισσότεραReminders: linear functions
Reminders: linear functions Let U and V be vector spaces over the same field F. Definition A function f : U V is linear if for every u 1, u 2 U, f (u 1 + u 2 ) = f (u 1 ) + f (u 2 ), and for every u U
Διαβάστε περισσότεραHomework 8 Model Solution Section
MATH 004 Homework Solution Homework 8 Model Solution Section 14.5 14.6. 14.5. Use the Chain Rule to find dz where z cosx + 4y), x 5t 4, y 1 t. dz dx + dy y sinx + 4y)0t + 4) sinx + 4y) 1t ) 0t + 4t ) sinx
Διαβάστε περισσότεραCongruence Classes of Invertible Matrices of Order 3 over F 2
International Journal of Algebra, Vol. 8, 24, no. 5, 239-246 HIKARI Ltd, www.m-hikari.com http://dx.doi.org/.2988/ija.24.422 Congruence Classes of Invertible Matrices of Order 3 over F 2 Ligong An and
Διαβάστε περισσότεραChapter 6: Systems of Linear Differential. be continuous functions on the interval
Chapter 6: Systems of Linear Differential Equations Let a (t), a 2 (t),..., a nn (t), b (t), b 2 (t),..., b n (t) be continuous functions on the interval I. The system of n first-order differential equations
Διαβάστε περισσότεραMath 446 Homework 3 Solutions. (1). (i): Reverse triangle inequality for metrics: Let (X, d) be a metric space and let x, y, z X.
Math 446 Homework 3 Solutions. (1). (i): Reverse triangle inequalit for metrics: Let (X, d) be a metric space and let x,, z X. Prove that d(x, z) d(, z) d(x, ). (ii): Reverse triangle inequalit for norms:
Διαβάστε περισσότεραk A = [k, k]( )[a 1, a 2 ] = [ka 1,ka 2 ] 4For the division of two intervals of confidence in R +
Chapter 3. Fuzzy Arithmetic 3- Fuzzy arithmetic: ~Addition(+) and subtraction (-): Let A = [a and B = [b, b in R If x [a and y [b, b than x+y [a +b +b Symbolically,we write A(+)B = [a (+)[b, b = [a +b
Διαβάστε περισσότεραSolution Series 9. i=1 x i and i=1 x i.
Lecturer: Prof. Dr. Mete SONER Coordinator: Yilin WANG Solution Series 9 Q1. Let α, β >, the p.d.f. of a beta distribution with parameters α and β is { Γ(α+β) Γ(α)Γ(β) f(x α, β) xα 1 (1 x) β 1 for < x
Διαβάστε περισσότερα4.6 Autoregressive Moving Average Model ARMA(1,1)
84 CHAPTER 4. STATIONARY TS MODELS 4.6 Autoregressive Moving Average Model ARMA(,) This section is an introduction to a wide class of models ARMA(p,q) which we will consider in more detail later in this
Διαβάστε περισσότεραSOLUTIONS TO MATH38181 EXTREME VALUES AND FINANCIAL RISK EXAM
SOLUTIONS TO MATH38181 EXTREME VALUES AND FINANCIAL RISK EXAM Solutions to Question 1 a) The cumulative distribution function of T conditional on N n is Pr (T t N n) Pr (max (X 1,..., X N ) t N n) Pr (max
Διαβάστε περισσότεραLecture 15 - Root System Axiomatics
Lecture 15 - Root System Axiomatics Nov 1, 01 In this lecture we examine root systems from an axiomatic point of view. 1 Reflections If v R n, then it determines a hyperplane, denoted P v, through the
Διαβάστε περισσότεραCHAPTER 25 SOLVING EQUATIONS BY ITERATIVE METHODS
CHAPTER 5 SOLVING EQUATIONS BY ITERATIVE METHODS EXERCISE 104 Page 8 1. Find the positive root of the equation x + 3x 5 = 0, correct to 3 significant figures, using the method of bisection. Let f(x) =
Διαβάστε περισσότεραFinite Field Problems: Solutions
Finite Field Problems: Solutions 1. Let f = x 2 +1 Z 11 [x] and let F = Z 11 [x]/(f), a field. Let Solution: F =11 2 = 121, so F = 121 1 = 120. The possible orders are the divisors of 120. Solution: The
Διαβάστε περισσότερα6. MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION
6 MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESIMAION [1] Maximum Likelihood Estimator (1) Cases in which θ (unknown parameter) is scalar Notational Clarification: From now on, we denote the true value of θ as θ o hen, view θ
Διαβάστε περισσότερα2. Let H 1 and H 2 be Hilbert spaces and let T : H 1 H 2 be a bounded linear operator. Prove that [T (H 1 )] = N (T ). (6p)
Uppsala Universitet Matematiska Institutionen Andreas Strömbergsson Prov i matematik Funktionalanalys Kurs: F3B, F4Sy, NVP 2005-03-08 Skrivtid: 9 14 Tillåtna hjälpmedel: Manuella skrivdon, Kreyszigs bok
Διαβάστε περισσότεραOptimal Parameter in Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian Splitting Method for Certain Two-by-Two Block Matrices
Optimal Parameter in Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian Splitting Method for Certain Two-by-Two Block Matrices Chi-Kwong Li Department of Mathematics The College of William and Mary Williamsburg, Virginia 23187-8795
Διαβάστε περισσότεραIntroduction to the ML Estimation of ARMA processes
Introduction to the ML Estimation of ARMA processes Eduardo Rossi University of Pavia October 2013 Rossi ARMA Estimation Financial Econometrics - 2013 1 / 1 We consider the AR(p) model: Y t = c + φ 1 Y
Διαβάστε περισσότεραΑπόκριση σε Μοναδιαία Ωστική Δύναμη (Unit Impulse) Απόκριση σε Δυνάμεις Αυθαίρετα Μεταβαλλόμενες με το Χρόνο. Απόστολος Σ.
Απόκριση σε Δυνάμεις Αυθαίρετα Μεταβαλλόμενες με το Χρόνο The time integral of a force is referred to as impulse, is determined by and is obtained from: Newton s 2 nd Law of motion states that the action
Διαβάστε περισσότεραEcon 2110: Fall 2008 Suggested Solutions to Problem Set 8 questions or comments to Dan Fetter 1
Eon : Fall 8 Suggested Solutions to Problem Set 8 Email questions or omments to Dan Fetter Problem. Let X be a salar with density f(x, θ) (θx + θ) [ x ] with θ. (a) Find the most powerful level α test
Διαβάστε περισσότεραSCHOOL OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES G11LMA Linear Mathematics Examination Solutions
SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES GLMA Linear Mathematics 00- Examination Solutions. (a) i. ( + 5i)( i) = (6 + 5) + (5 )i = + i. Real part is, imaginary part is. (b) ii. + 5i i ( + 5i)( + i) = ( i)( + i)
Διαβάστε περισσότεραF19MC2 Solutions 9 Complex Analysis
F9MC Solutions 9 Complex Analysis. (i) Let f(z) = eaz +z. Then f is ifferentiable except at z = ±i an so by Cauchy s Resiue Theorem e az z = πi[res(f,i)+res(f, i)]. +z C(,) Since + has zeros of orer at
Διαβάστε περισσότεραMatrices and Determinants
Matrices and Determinants SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS: Q 1. For what value of k do the following system of equations possess a non-trivial (i.e., not all zero) solution over the set of rationals Q? x + ky + 3z
Διαβάστε περισσότεραA Two-Sided Laplace Inversion Algorithm with Computable Error Bounds and Its Applications in Financial Engineering
Electronic Companion A Two-Sie Laplace Inversion Algorithm with Computable Error Bouns an Its Applications in Financial Engineering Ning Cai, S. G. Kou, Zongjian Liu HKUST an Columbia University Appenix
Διαβάστε περισσότεραGenerating Set of the Complete Semigroups of Binary Relations
Applied Mathematics 06 7 98-07 Published Online January 06 in SciRes http://wwwscirporg/journal/am http://dxdoiorg/036/am067009 Generating Set of the Complete Semigroups of Binary Relations Yasha iasamidze
Διαβάστε περισσότεραMean-Variance Analysis
Mean-Variance Analysis Jan Schneider McCombs School of Business University of Texas at Austin Jan Schneider Mean-Variance Analysis Beta Representation of the Risk Premium risk premium E t [Rt t+τ ] R1
Διαβάστε περισσότεραLecture 2: Dirac notation and a review of linear algebra Read Sakurai chapter 1, Baym chatper 3
Lecture 2: Dirac notation and a review of linear algebra Read Sakurai chapter 1, Baym chatper 3 1 State vector space and the dual space Space of wavefunctions The space of wavefunctions is the set of all
Διαβάστε περισσότεραFourier Series. MATH 211, Calculus II. J. Robert Buchanan. Spring Department of Mathematics
Fourier Series MATH 211, Calculus II J. Robert Buchanan Department of Mathematics Spring 2018 Introduction Not all functions can be represented by Taylor series. f (k) (c) A Taylor series f (x) = (x c)
Διαβάστε περισσότερα1. Introduction and Preliminaries.
Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics, University of Niš, Serbia Available at: http://www.pmf.ni.ac.yu/filomat Filomat 22:1 (2008), 97 106 ON δ SETS IN γ SPACES V. Renuka Devi and D. Sivaraj Abstract We
Διαβάστε περισσότεραSection 8.3 Trigonometric Equations
99 Section 8. Trigonometric Equations Objective 1: Solve Equations Involving One Trigonometric Function. In this section and the next, we will exple how to solving equations involving trigonometric functions.
Διαβάστε περισσότεραArithmetical applications of lagrangian interpolation. Tanguy Rivoal. Institut Fourier CNRS and Université de Grenoble 1
Arithmetical applications of lagrangian interpolation Tanguy Rivoal Institut Fourier CNRS and Université de Grenoble Conference Diophantine and Analytic Problems in Number Theory, The 00th anniversary
Διαβάστε περισσότεραBayesian statistics. DS GA 1002 Probability and Statistics for Data Science.
Bayesian statistics DS GA 1002 Probability and Statistics for Data Science http://www.cims.nyu.edu/~cfgranda/pages/dsga1002_fall17 Carlos Fernandez-Granda Frequentist vs Bayesian statistics In frequentist
Διαβάστε περισσότεραECE598: Information-theoretic methods in high-dimensional statistics Spring 2016
ECE598: Information-theoretic methods in high-dimensional statistics Spring 06 Lecture 7: Information bound Lecturer: Yihong Wu Scribe: Shiyu Liang, Feb 6, 06 [Ed. Mar 9] Recall the Chi-squared divergence
Διαβάστε περισσότεραSection 7.6 Double and Half Angle Formulas
09 Section 7. Double and Half Angle Fmulas To derive the double-angles fmulas, we will use the sum of two angles fmulas that we developed in the last section. We will let α θ and β θ: cos(θ) cos(θ + θ)
Διαβάστε περισσότεραSpace-Time Symmetries
Chapter Space-Time Symmetries In classical fiel theory any continuous symmetry of the action generates a conserve current by Noether's proceure. If the Lagrangian is not invariant but only shifts by a
Διαβάστε περισσότεραSOLUTIONS TO MATH38181 EXTREME VALUES AND FINANCIAL RISK EXAM
SOLUTIONS TO MATH38181 EXTREME VALUES AND FINANCIAL RISK EXAM Solutions to Question 1 a) The cumulative distribution function of T conditional on N n is Pr T t N n) Pr max X 1,..., X N ) t N n) Pr max
Διαβάστε περισσότεραThe challenges of non-stable predicates
The challenges of non-stable predicates Consider a non-stable predicate Φ encoding, say, a safety property. We want to determine whether Φ holds for our program. The challenges of non-stable predicates
Διαβάστε περισσότεραMINIMAL CLOSED SETS AND MAXIMAL CLOSED SETS
MINIMAL CLOSED SETS AND MAXIMAL CLOSED SETS FUMIE NAKAOKA AND NOBUYUKI ODA Received 20 December 2005; Revised 28 May 2006; Accepted 6 August 2006 Some properties of minimal closed sets and maximal closed
Διαβάστε περισσότεραThe ε-pseudospectrum of a Matrix
The ε-pseudospectrum of a Matrix Feb 16, 2015 () The ε-pseudospectrum of a Matrix Feb 16, 2015 1 / 18 1 Preliminaries 2 Definitions 3 Basic Properties 4 Computation of Pseudospectrum of 2 2 5 Problems
Διαβάστε περισσότερα6.1. Dirac Equation. Hamiltonian. Dirac Eq.
6.1. Dirac Equation Ref: M.Kaku, Quantum Field Theory, Oxford Univ Press (1993) η μν = η μν = diag(1, -1, -1, -1) p 0 = p 0 p = p i = -p i p μ p μ = p 0 p 0 + p i p i = E c 2 - p 2 = (m c) 2 H = c p 2
Διαβάστε περισσότερα12. Radon-Nikodym Theorem
Tutorial 12: Radon-Nikodym Theorem 1 12. Radon-Nikodym Theorem In the following, (Ω, F) is an arbitrary measurable space. Definition 96 Let μ and ν be two (possibly complex) measures on (Ω, F). We say
Διαβάστε περισσότεραANSWERSHEET (TOPIC = DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS) COLLECTION #2. h 0 h h 0 h h 0 ( ) g k = g 0 + g 1 + g g 2009 =?
Teko Classes IITJEE/AIEEE Maths by SUHAAG SIR, Bhopal, Ph (0755) 3 00 000 www.tekoclasses.com ANSWERSHEET (TOPIC DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS) COLLECTION # Question Type A.Single Correct Type Q. (A) Sol least
Διαβάστε περισσότεραCoefficient Inequalities for a New Subclass of K-uniformly Convex Functions
International Journal of Computational Science and Mathematics. ISSN 0974-89 Volume, Number (00), pp. 67--75 International Research Publication House http://www.irphouse.com Coefficient Inequalities for
Διαβάστε περισσότεραEcon Spring 2004 Instructor: Prof. Kiefer Solution to Problem set # 5. γ (0)
Cornell University Department of Economics Econ 60 - Spring 004 Instructor: Prof. Kiefer Solution to Problem set # 5. Autocorrelation function is defined as ρ h = γ h γ 0 where γ h =Cov X t,x t h =E[X
Διαβάστε περισσότεραSOME PROPERTIES OF FUZZY REAL NUMBERS
Sahand Communications in Mathematical Analysis (SCMA) Vol. 3 No. 1 (2016), 21-27 http://scma.maragheh.ac.ir SOME PROPERTIES OF FUZZY REAL NUMBERS BAYAZ DARABY 1 AND JAVAD JAFARI 2 Abstract. In the mathematical
Διαβάστε περισσότεραHOMEWORK 4 = G. In order to plot the stress versus the stretch we define a normalized stretch:
HOMEWORK 4 Problem a For the fast loading case, we want to derive the relationship between P zz and λ z. We know that the nominal stress is expressed as: P zz = ψ λ z where λ z = λ λ z. Therefore, applying
Διαβάστε περισσότεραInverse trigonometric functions & General Solution of Trigonometric Equations. ------------------ ----------------------------- -----------------
Inverse trigonometric functions & General Solution of Trigonometric Equations. 1. Sin ( ) = a) b) c) d) Ans b. Solution : Method 1. Ans a: 17 > 1 a) is rejected. w.k.t Sin ( sin ) = d is rejected. If sin
Διαβάστε περισσότεραThe Simply Typed Lambda Calculus
Type Inference Instead of writing type annotations, can we use an algorithm to infer what the type annotations should be? That depends on the type system. For simple type systems the answer is yes, and
Διαβάστε περισσότεραMath221: HW# 1 solutions
Math: HW# solutions Andy Royston October, 5 7.5.7, 3 rd Ed. We have a n = b n = a = fxdx = xdx =, x cos nxdx = x sin nx n sin nxdx n = cos nx n = n n, x sin nxdx = x cos nx n + cos nxdx n cos n = + sin
Διαβάστε περισσότερα3.4 SUM AND DIFFERENCE FORMULAS. NOTE: cos(α+β) cos α + cos β cos(α-β) cos α -cos β
3.4 SUM AND DIFFERENCE FORMULAS Page Theorem cos(αβ cos α cos β -sin α cos(α-β cos α cos β sin α NOTE: cos(αβ cos α cos β cos(α-β cos α -cos β Proof of cos(α-β cos α cos β sin α Let s use a unit circle
Διαβάστε περισσότεραAreas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates
Kiryl Tsishchanka Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates In this section we develop the formula for the area of a region whose boundary is given by a polar equation. We need to use the formula for the
Διαβάστε περισσότεραAreas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates
Kiryl Tsishchanka Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates In this section we develop the formula for the area of a region whose boundary is given by a polar equation. We need to use the formula for the
Διαβάστε περισσότεραLecture 13 - Root Space Decomposition II
Lecture 13 - Root Space Decomposition II October 18, 2012 1 Review First let us recall the situation. Let g be a simple algebra, with maximal toral subalgebra h (which we are calling a CSA, or Cartan Subalgebra).
Διαβάστε περισσότεραLecture 2. Soundness and completeness of propositional logic
Lecture 2 Soundness and completeness of propositional logic February 9, 2004 1 Overview Review of natural deduction. Soundness and completeness. Semantics of propositional formulas. Soundness proof. Completeness
Διαβάστε περισσότεραω ω ω ω ω ω+2 ω ω+2 + ω ω ω ω+2 + ω ω+1 ω ω+2 2 ω ω ω ω ω ω ω ω+1 ω ω2 ω ω2 + ω ω ω2 + ω ω ω ω2 + ω ω+1 ω ω2 + ω ω+1 + ω ω ω ω2 + ω
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ω ω + 1 ω + 2 ω + 3 ω + 4 ω2 ω2 + 1 ω2 + 2 ω2 + 3 ω3 ω3 + 1 ω3 + 2 ω4 ω4 + 1 ω5 ω 2 ω 2 + 1 ω 2 + 2 ω 2 + ω ω 2 + ω + 1 ω 2 + ω2 ω 2 2 ω 2 2 + 1 ω 2 2 + ω ω 2 3 ω 3 ω 3 + 1 ω 3 + ω ω 3 +
Διαβάστε περισσότεραSurvival Analysis: One-Sample Problem /Two-Sample Problem/Regression. Lu Tian and Richard Olshen Stanford University
Survival Analysis: One-Sample Problem /Two-Sample Problem/Regression Lu Tian and Richard Olshen Stanford University 1 One sample problem T 1,, T n 1 S( ), C 1,, C n G( ) and T i C i Observations: (U i,
Διαβάστε περισσότεραExercises to Statistics of Material Fatigue No. 5
Prof. Dr. Christine Müller Dipl.-Math. Christoph Kustosz Eercises to Statistics of Material Fatigue No. 5 E. 9 (5 a Show, that a Fisher information matri for a two dimensional parameter θ (θ,θ 2 R 2, can
Διαβάστε περισσότεραSecond Order Partial Differential Equations
Chapter 7 Second Order Partial Differential Equations 7.1 Introduction A second order linear PDE in two independent variables (x, y Ω can be written as A(x, y u x + B(x, y u xy + C(x, y u u u + D(x, y
Διαβάστε περισσότεραw o = R 1 p. (1) R = p =. = 1
Πανεπιστήµιο Κρήτης - Τµήµα Επιστήµης Υπολογιστών ΗΥ-570: Στατιστική Επεξεργασία Σήµατος 205 ιδάσκων : Α. Μουχτάρης Τριτη Σειρά Ασκήσεων Λύσεις Ασκηση 3. 5.2 (a) From the Wiener-Hopf equation we have:
Διαβάστε περισσότεραSTAT200C: Hypothesis Testing
STAT200C: Hypothesis Testing Zhaoxia Yu Spring 2017 Some Definitions A hypothesis is a statement about a population parameter. The two complementary hypotheses in a hypothesis testing are the null hypothesis
Διαβάστε περισσότερα5.4 The Poisson Distribution.
The worst thing you can do about a situation is nothing. Sr. O Shea Jackson 5.4 The Poisson Distribution. Description of the Poisson Distribution Discrete probability distribution. The random variable
Διαβάστε περισσότεραLecture 10 - Representation Theory III: Theory of Weights
Lecture 10 - Representation Theory III: Theory of Weights February 18, 2012 1 Terminology One assumes a base = {α i } i has been chosen. Then a weight Λ with non-negative integral Dynkin coefficients Λ
Διαβάστε περισσότεραA General Note on δ-quasi Monotone and Increasing Sequence
International Mathematical Forum, 4, 2009, no. 3, 143-149 A General Note on δ-quasi Monotone and Increasing Sequence Santosh Kr. Saxena H. N. 419, Jawaharpuri, Badaun, U.P., India Presently working in
Διαβάστε περισσότεραPractice Exam 2. Conceptual Questions. 1. State a Basic identity and then verify it. (a) Identity: Solution: One identity is csc(θ) = 1
Conceptual Questions. State a Basic identity and then verify it. a) Identity: Solution: One identity is cscθ) = sinθ) Practice Exam b) Verification: Solution: Given the point of intersection x, y) of the
Διαβάστε περισσότεραNew bounds for spherical two-distance sets and equiangular lines
New bounds for spherical two-distance sets and equiangular lines Michigan State University Oct 8-31, 016 Anhui University Definition If X = {x 1, x,, x N } S n 1 (unit sphere in R n ) and x i, x j = a
Διαβάστε περισσότεραBounding Nonsplitting Enumeration Degrees
Bounding Nonsplitting Enumeration Degrees Thomas F. Kent Andrea Sorbi Università degli Studi di Siena Italia July 18, 2007 Goal: Introduce a form of Σ 0 2-permitting for the enumeration degrees. Till now,
Διαβάστε περισσότεραΚΥΠΡΙΑΚΗ ΕΤΑΙΡΕΙΑ ΠΛΗΡΟΦΟΡΙΚΗΣ CYPRUS COMPUTER SOCIETY ΠΑΓΚΥΠΡΙΟΣ ΜΑΘΗΤΙΚΟΣ ΔΙΑΓΩΝΙΣΜΟΣ ΠΛΗΡΟΦΟΡΙΚΗΣ 19/5/2007
Οδηγίες: Να απαντηθούν όλες οι ερωτήσεις. Αν κάπου κάνετε κάποιες υποθέσεις να αναφερθούν στη σχετική ερώτηση. Όλα τα αρχεία που αναφέρονται στα προβλήματα βρίσκονται στον ίδιο φάκελο με το εκτελέσιμο
Διαβάστε περισσότεραHomomorphism in Intuitionistic Fuzzy Automata
International Journal of Fuzzy Mathematics Systems. ISSN 2248-9940 Volume 3, Number 1 (2013), pp. 39-45 Research India Publications http://www.ripublication.com/ijfms.htm Homomorphism in Intuitionistic
Διαβάστε περισσότεραAppendix S1 1. ( z) α βc. dβ β δ β
Appendix S1 1 Proof of Lemma 1. Taking first and second partial derivatives of the expected profit function, as expressed in Eq. (7), with respect to l: Π Π ( z, λ, l) l θ + s ( s + h ) g ( t) dt λ Ω(
Διαβάστε περισσότεραChapter 3: Ordinal Numbers
Chapter 3: Ordinal Numbers There are two kinds of number.. Ordinal numbers (0th), st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th,..., ω, ω +,... ω2, ω2+,... ω 2... answers to the question What position is... in a sequence? What
Διαβάστε περισσότεραMain source: "Discrete-time systems and computer control" by Α. ΣΚΟΔΡΑΣ ΨΗΦΙΑΚΟΣ ΕΛΕΓΧΟΣ ΔΙΑΛΕΞΗ 4 ΔΙΑΦΑΝΕΙΑ 1
Main source: "Discrete-time systems and computer control" by Α. ΣΚΟΔΡΑΣ ΨΗΦΙΑΚΟΣ ΕΛΕΓΧΟΣ ΔΙΑΛΕΞΗ 4 ΔΙΑΦΑΝΕΙΑ 1 A Brief History of Sampling Research 1915 - Edmund Taylor Whittaker (1873-1956) devised a
Διαβάστε περισσότεραCommutative Monoids in Intuitionistic Fuzzy Sets
Commutative Monoids in Intuitionistic Fuzzy Sets S K Mala #1, Dr. MM Shanmugapriya *2 1 PhD Scholar in Mathematics, Karpagam University, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu- 641021 Assistant Professor of Mathematics,
Διαβάστε περισσότεραTheorem 8 Let φ be the most powerful size α test of H
Testing composite hypotheses Θ = Θ 0 Θ c 0 H 0 : θ Θ 0 H 1 : θ Θ c 0 Definition 16 A test φ is a uniformly most powerful (UMP) level α test for H 0 vs. H 1 if φ has level α and for any other level α test
Διαβάστε περισσότεραderivation of the Laplacian from rectangular to spherical coordinates
derivation of the Laplacian from rectangular to spherical coordinates swapnizzle 03-03- :5:43 We begin by recognizing the familiar conversion from rectangular to spherical coordinates (note that φ is used
Διαβάστε περισσότεραMatrices and vectors. Matrix and vector. a 11 a 12 a 1n a 21 a 22 a 2n A = b 1 b 2. b m. R m n, b = = ( a ij. a m1 a m2 a mn. def
Matrices and vectors Matrix and vector a 11 a 12 a 1n a 21 a 22 a 2n A = a m1 a m2 a mn def = ( a ij ) R m n, b = b 1 b 2 b m Rm Matrix and vectors in linear equations: example E 1 : x 1 + x 2 + 3x 4 =
Διαβάστε περισσότερα