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11 (G) = 4 1 (G) = 3 (G) = 6 6 W G G C = {K 2,i i = 1, 2,...} (C[, 2]) (C[, 2]) {u 1, u 2, u 3 } {u 2, u 3, u 4 } {u 3, u 4, u 5 } {u 3, u 4, u 6 } G

12 u v G (G) = 2 O 1 O 2, O 3, O 4, O 5, O 6, O 7 O 8, O 9 A (G, {v}, {v}) B (G,, {v}) C (G, {v}, ) G C[, 2] B0 B4 B1, B2 B3 F 1, F 2 F 4

14 V V (V, E) G G V (G) E(G) V (G) E(G) {x, y} E(G) x y {x, y} G V (G) u, v {u, v} E(G) k 1 P k = ( {u 1,..., u k+1 }, { {u1, u 2 },..., {u k, u k+1 } }) u 1 u k+1 P k k 1 C k = ( {u 1,..., u k }, { {u 1, u 2 },..., {u k 1, u k }, {u k, u 1 } } k 1 K k = ( {u 1,..., u k }, { {u i, u j } 1 i < j k }) A, B k l K k,l = (A B, { {u, v} u A v B } ) S V (G) S G[S] = ( S, { {u, v} E(G) {u, v} S })

15 F E(G) F G[F ] = ( e F e, F ) G G G e E(G) G G u, v V (G) G {u, v} E(G) u G N G (u) = {e E(G) u e} e \ {u} u G G (u) = N G (u) G δ(g) = { G (u) u V (G)} G (G) = { G (u) u V (G)} d d d u, v V (G) G G u, v V 1,..., V k G[V i ] 1 i k G u, v V (G) G G G Γ G R 2 Γ G G F e F e = V (G) F G L 1 = l 1 1,..., l 1 p L 2 = l 2 1,..., l 2 q L 1 L 2 l 1 1,..., l 1 p, l 2 1,..., l 2 q L 1 L 2 n 2 n Σ Σ Σ G

16 L L w Σ w L L Σ G G Σ G L G I L L L G G I G k k G G w Σ w

17 G R 3 R 3 Γ R 3 Π = {x i 1 i k} Γ y : [0, ) Γ t(y) [0, ) i {1, 2,, k} y(t(y)) = x i (t(y)) y(t) t Γ x i (t) i k t(y) k Γ Γ G = (V, E)

18 u v p(v) v r(v) v s(u, v) {u, v} u v S e E(G) e e S S E(S, i) i S i S E(S, i)

19 E(S, 0) = i 1 E i i Q i = E(S, i 1) E i E(S, i) Q i E(G)\Q i S E(S, i) = E(G) i G i S E i i S E(S, i) Q i i i i 1 i j E(S, i) E(S, j) S G (S) G S (G) = { G (S) S G} E(G) = (G) = 0 G (T ) = 2 T e

20 G (G) T (T ) = 3 (T ) (T ) K 3,3 (K 3,3 ) = 4 (K 3,3 ) = 5 G (G) (H) = 2 (G) = 3 H G G (G) (G) (G) (G) G = (V, E) G e G {x, y} E {x, u xy } {u xy, y} u xy V (G) = (G e ) G n G e E (G) = (G n )

21 G (G) 1 (G) (G) + 1 (G) (G) (G) + 1 (G) (G) (G) + 1 k k + 1 k k + 1 (G) (G) (G) (G)

23 d

24 k k k G G (G) k > 1 G (G) 3 u u G (G) T (T ) = 2

25 G (G) G G (G) = (G) G (G) = 4 G (G) = 4 1 (G) = 3 (G) = 6 G n s {1,..., n 1} s (G) s n 1 (G) = (G) G 1 (G) = 3 G s (G) (G) s {1,..., n 1}

26 G (G) G G (G) = 4 G (G) k k G X V (G) v X k v X \ {v} X = {u V (H) H (u) = 6} 6 H 6 H G (G) + 1 = {k G k } H (H) = 7

27 G S i {1,..., S } G[E(S, i)] (G), (G) (G) (G), (G) (G) S G (G) = 2 (G) = 3 G

28 G (G) (G) S G = (V, E) i i i E(S, i 1) C E(S, i) = E(G) \ E(C) E(S, i) E(G) \ E(S, i) q G q q q (G) (G) G (G) = (G) C q = 0 0 (G) = (G)

29 G S G (S) = k S G (S ) k k G k (G) k {,,,,, }

30 G (A 0, Z 0 ),..., (A n, Z n ), A i E(G) Z i V (G) 0 i n A 0 = A n = E(G) A i Z i = ( e A i e) ( e E(G)\A i e) 0 i n Z i 0 i n Z i Z i 1 A i = A i 1 Z i Z i 1 A i e e E(G) \ A i 1 Z i Z i = (Z i 1 \ {u}) {v} u Z i 1 v V (G) \ Z i 1 {u, v} E(G) \ A i 1 u A i 1 A i = A i 1 {e} {u, v} v Z i = Z i 1 A i = A i 1 {e} e E(G) \ A i 1 Z i 1

31 S = (A 0, Z 0 ),..., (A n, Z n ) G G (S) = { Z i 0 i n} (G) = { G (S) S G} G X 0,..., X n E(G) X 0 = X n = E(G) X i \ X i i n X i A i G X E(G) G (X) = ( e) ( e X e E(G)\X X 0,..., X n G k G (X i ) k 0 i n G (G) k G k S = (A 0, Z 0 ),..., (A n, Z n ) G G (S) k G (A i ) Z i 0 i k G (A i ) k A 0,..., A n k G k k X = X 0,..., X n G k 0 i n ( G(X i ) + 1) 0 i n X i e)

32 X G (X i 1 X i ) G (X i ) 1 i n X = X 0, X 1,..., X i 1, X i 1 X i, X i+1,..., X n, k X, Y G (X Y ) + G (X Y G (X) + G (Y ) G (X i 1 X i ) G (X i 1 ) k X = X 0, X 1,..., X i 1, X i 1 X i, X i+1,..., X n, k X i 1 X i X i 1 X i 1 = X i X i 1 X i X i \ X i 1 = 1 X G δ(g) 2 X 0,..., X n G k X i \ X i 1 = {e i } 1 i n S A i = A i 1 {e i } 1 i n S j {1,..., n} A j = {e 1,..., e j 1 } A i = A i 1 {e i } 1 i j Z i k 0 i j G (X j 1 ) = Z j G (X j 1 ) e j X j \ X j 1 X j 1 e j G (X j 1 ) e j G (X j 1 ) k Z j+1 = Z j e j A j+1 = A j e j e j e j G (X j 1 ) v e j v v G (X j ) u e j u G (X j 1 ) \ G (X j ) u E(G)\X j Z j+1 = (Z j \{u}) {v} A j+1 = A j e j u e j v k S (X i 1 X i ) \ X i 1 1 X i+1 \ (X i 1 X i ) 1 (X i 1 X i ) \ X i 2 1 X i \ (X i 1 X i ) 1

33 G G (G ) = (G) S G G k G k G k G k (G) (G) G G S α : {1,..., S } V (G) α(i) = G (E(S, i)) α α(i) α(j) + α(i) α(j) α(i) + α(j), S i S j < i

34 (G) (G), (G), (G), (G) (G) G (G) = (G) G {,,,,, } W i K i K i K j i = j K i K j i < j (W ) = 281 (W ) = 290 W

35 T (T ) = (T ) k 4 G (G) = 4k + 1 (G) = 4k + 2 G (G) = 4 (G) = 5

37 G (G) (G), {,,,, } G {,,,, } α (G) = (G) (G) α (G) = 1, 5 G

38 G G G G n α (G) = ( n) T (T ) (T ) 2 (T ) 2 T α (T ) < 2

39 {α (G) G n } = 2 n

41 G = (V, E) u V e = {x, y} E u xy V G G \ u = (V \ {u}, {{u 1, u 2 } E u 1, u 2 u}) u G \ e = (V, E \ {e}) e G/e = (V \ {x, y} {u x,y }, {{u 1, u 2 } E u 1, u 2 {x, y}} {{u xy, v} v N G (x) N G (y) \ {x, y}}) e u xy H G H G G H G G G H G G G H G

42 ,, G G H G H G C = {K 2,i i = 1, 2,...} k 2,i K 2,j k 2,i K 2,j i j k 2,i K 2,j i, j K 2,1 K 2,2 K 2,3 C = {K 2,i i = 1, 2,...} C C {,, } H G G C H C C C G 1, G 2,... C G i, G j G i G j C C (C) G \ C (C) C T (T ) = {K 3 } {,, } P (P) = {K 5, K 3,3 } C G \ C (C) C C G \ C

43 (C) G C O (C) O G (C) C C[, k] = {G G (G) k} {,,,,,,,, } k k 1 C[, k], C[, k] C[, k] C[, k], C[, k] C[, k] k 1, (C[, 1]) ({u, v}, {{u, v}}) (C[, 2]) = {K 3, T } T (C[, k]) (C[, k]) (C[, k]) k = 1, 2 (C[, 2]) K 3 T T

44 C (C[, 1]) = {K 3, K 1,3 } C[, 1] (C[, 1]) (C[, 1]) (C[, 1]) (C[, 1]) (C[, 1]) (C[, 1]) C (C) (C) (C) (C) (C[, 2]) (C[, 2])

45 (C[, 2]) (C[, 2]) (C[, 3]) (C[, 3]) (C[, 2])

47 f : G N n(g) m(g) n(g) = V (G) m(g) = E(G) (G) G (G) = { G (u) u V }

48 G G G = (V, E) X 1,..., X r V i=1,...,r X i = V {x, y} E i {1,..., r} {x, y} X i 1 i j k r X i X k X j G k X 1,..., X r { X i i = 1,..., r} = k 1 (G) = k { X i i = 1,..., r} P n e 1,..., e n X i = e i i = 1,..., n (P ) = 1 C u u u X i (C) = 1 G (G) = (G) + 1 H G H G

49 G P = X 1,..., X r k P i, j, k 1 i < j < k r X i, X j, X k X i X j X k k 1 k k 1 G (G) G (G) (G) (G) + 1 G u 1 u 3 u 6 u 2 u 5 u 4 {u 1, u 2, u 3 } {u 2, u 3, u 4 } {u 3, u 4, u 5 } {u 3, u 4, u 6 } G (G) = (G)

50 G P = X 1,..., X r P i {1,..., r} G[X 1 X i ] G (G) k k 1 G (G) 2 (G) + 1 G P k C 2k + 1 C 2k + 3 (G) (G) + 2 G S k G S 2k + 3 G (G) (G) 2 (G) + 3 X 1,..., X r G

51 G X i X i X i, X j i j = 1 X j X i X k X i X k X j X i G G = (V, E) G X 1,..., X r V T V (T ) = {1,..., r} i=1,...,r X i = V {x, y} E i {1,..., r} {x, y} X i i, j, k {1,..., r} j T i k X i X k X j G k ( X 1,..., X r, T ) k 1 (G) = k G (G) = (G) = 2 G (G) = (G) + 1 k k

52 u 2 u3 u 4 u 8 u 9 u 10 u 1 u 5 u 6 u 7 u 11 G u 1 u 2 u 3 u 3 u 4 u 5 u 4 u 5 u 6 u 4 u 6 u 7 u 4 u 6 u 8 u 8 u 9 u 9 u 10 u 11 u 9 u 10 u 2 u 4 u 5 u 6 u 8 u 1 u 3 u 4 u 4 u 3 u 5 u 6 u u 8 9 u 6 u 7 u 9 u 11 G G = (V, E) X 1,..., X r V G i=1,...,r X i = V {x, y} E x X F (y) y X F (x) F (u) = { i {1,..., r} u X i } G k X 1,..., X r k 1 (G) = k G = (V, E) V = n L = u 1,..., u n u L L L V G u 1, u 2, u 3, u 4, u 5, u 6, u 7, u 8, u 9, u 10 G 1 (G) = (G) + 1

53 u 8 u 10 u 9 u 7 u 5 u 6 u 1 u 2 u 3 u 4 G = (V, E) V = n L = u 1,..., u n (G, L) = { i j {u i, u j } E} G k L (G, L) = k (G) = k G = (V, E) G G G E G G G G (G) = { (G ) G G} (G) = 2 G (G) (G) G (G) = (G)

54 G G = (V, E) E = m L = e 1,..., e m e i L ( ) ( ) L (e i ) = e j e j 1 j i i<j m L (L) = { L (e) e E} G (G) = {(L) L } E = 1 (G) = 0 { u 1 } { u 2, u2 } { u 3, u3 } { u 4, u3 } { u 5, u5 } { u 6, u5 } { u 7, u7 } u 8, { u7 } { u 9, u9 } { u 10, u9 } u 2 G (G) (G) G (G) = (G) (G) (G) G P = {p 1,..., p r } G ΛG = (V (G) {p 1,..., p r}, E(G) {{p 1, p 1},..., {p r, p r}} {p 1,..., p r} V (G) = Λ 1 G = (V (G) \ P, {{u 1, u 2 } E u 1, u 2 P }) G (G) = (ΛG) (G) = (Λ 1 G) G (G) (G) (G) + 1

55 (G) = (G) + 1 (G) = (G) (G) (G) + 2 (G) = (G) (G) = (G) + 1 (G) (G) (G) (G) (G) + 1

57 k k G = (V, E) V k V V 1, V 2 { } {x, y} E x V 1, y V 2 k k k

58 k G (G) = (G)+1 k k k k k C G C k (G) k k T n (T ) O(n) k T T T (T ) O(n n)

59 k A (G) = k {,, } (T ) T A (T ), (T ) k T G n (G) 3 O(n) k C G H G H G O(n 3 ) n = V (G) C (C) O 1,..., O (C) G G C O i G O i (C) O(n 3 ) n G C C (C) C (C) C[, k] C[, k] C[, k] C O(n 3 )

60 G (G) 2 (G) 2 (G) 3 k G = (V, E) (G) k V (G) k C C k 1 k G k 1 (G) k G = (V, E) O( V + E ) 1 k k Π L Π Σ G N Σ (I, k) L Π I Π k I

61 k G k k k G k k (G) k k G n(g) k n(g) Π A O(f(k) p(n)) f p n Π F P T A : G N H G H G (H) (G) C[, k] = {G G (G) k} k N k G k k (G) k : G N k (C[, k]) g : N N g(k) = (C[, k]) G G

62 (C[, k]) g(k) (G) k O(g(k) n 3 ) k k l G = (V, E) P l (G) k (G) k O(2 p(k) n) p n = V G O(n 2 ) l k (k) (G) O(2 p(k) n 2 ) k 2 ko(1) n G = (V, E) (G) k (G) k (G) k k

63 O = {C i, i N} G G C, C O C C C C G G C[, 2]

64 B u C v B u v C u v G (G) = 2 (G, S, S ) G S S V (G) G = (G, S, S ) G G S

65 K 2,3 K + 2,3 K 4 O 1 S S S G S S S S (G, S, S ) S = {v 1,..., v S } S = {v 1,..., v S }. (G, S, S ) G u u E = {{v 1, u },..., {v S, u }} E = {{v 1, u },..., {v S, u }}. G S, S V (G) (S 1, S 2 ) G S (G, S, S )

66 O 2 O3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 2, O 3, O 4, O 5, O 6, O 7 E(S, i) = E i E(S, i) E = i E(S, i) = E(G) \ E i (G, S 1, S 2 ) (S 1, S 2 ) G (G, S 1, S 2 ) (G, S 1, S 2 ) (G) = (G,, ) G (G) (G) G E E E(G) G (E, E ) G E = A 1,..., A r i {1,..., r 1} E A i E(G) \ E i {1,..., r 1} A i+1 \ A i 1 A 1 = E

67 O8 O 9 O 8, O 9 A r = E(G) \ E (E, E ) G i {1,..., r} G[A i ] (E, E ) G A 1 A r (E, E ) E G i {1,..., r 1} E i G (E, i) = G (A i ) + q i q i A i 2 A i \ A i 1 A i E G (E) = { G (E, i) i {1,..., r 1}} G S, S V (G) (G, S, S ) (E, E ) (G, S, S ) (G, S, S ) (E, E ) (G, S, S ) (E, E )

68 G (G, S, S ) = (G, S, S ) G = (G, S, S ) (S 1, S 2 ) S k S i {1,..., S } E i = E(S, i) \ E(S, i 1) L i E i i {1,..., S } i S e L i e L = L 1 L S E = A 0,..., A r E(G ) A 0 = A i = A i 1 {e i } e i i L A s = E s {1,..., S } A t = E t {1,..., S } E = A s,..., A t (E, E ) G E (E) S G (E ) j {0,..., E } i j A j \ A j 1 E ij h j A hj \ A hj 1 L ij E h j,..., j G (E, h j ) l {h j + 1,..., j} G (A l ) G (A hj ) q l = 0 G (E, h j ) k G (E ) k q hj q hj = 0 G (E, h j ) = G (A hj ) S G (A hj ) i j S S k G (E, h j ) k q hj = 1 i j S p(x) s(y, x) x x G (A hj ) G (A hj ) i j G (A hj ) + 1 k G (E, h j ) k S G (A hj ) = G (A hj 1) \ {y} (h j 1) G (A hj 1) G (A hj ) k 1 G (E, h j ) k G (E, E ) E = A 1,..., A r G (E) = k E

69 E (E, E ) E = A 1,..., A r k i {1,..., r 1} V (A i ) V (A i+1 ) A i E(G ) V (A i ) (E, E ) i V (A i ) V (A i+1 ) L = e 1,..., e n E(G ) \ A i A i j i A j = A j A i+1 = A i {e 1 } A i+2 = A i {e 1, e 2 },..., A i+n = A i {e 1,..., e n } j i + n A j = A j {e 1,..., e n } j = 1,..., n G (A i+j ) = G (A i) j i + n G (A j ) G (A j) k (S, S ) G S k S S p(u ) S s(u, vi ) 2 S S S 0 E(S, 2 S ) = A 1 u V = V (G ) \ S \ {u } l u {1,..., r} u V (A lu ) L = u 1,..., u V V i j l ui l uj i {1,..., V } u i e i A lui 1 \ A lui v i e i E v i G (A lui 1) u i u i G (A lui ) E = {e 1,..., e V } A j j {1,..., r} A j 1 E < A j E i {1,..., V } S i v i G (A lui ) S i p(u i ) s(v i, u i ) S i G (A lui 1) \ G (A lui ) S = S 0 S 1 S V E A j j = 1,..., l u1 S i {1,..., V 1} A j j {l ui,..., l ui+1 1} V (A lui ) A j j {l u V,..., r} V (A lu V )

70 A j j {1,..., r} G (A j ) G S mj m j (A E ) \ (A j 1 E ) A E A j A A 1 = E A j G (A j +1) G S mj +1 A j +1 G (A j +1) G (A j ) m j +1 = m j A j +1 {e mj +1 } = (A j +1 E ) \ (A j E ) v mj +1 G (A j ) v mj +1 G (A j +1) u mj +1 G (A j +1) G (A j +1) = G (A j ) {u mj +1 } S mj +1 p(u mj +1 ) v mj +1 G (A j +1) u mj +1 G (A j +1) G (A j +1) = G (A j ) v mj +1 G (A j +1) G (A j +1) = ( G (A j ) \ {v mj +1 }) {u mj +1 } S mj +1 s(v mj +1, u mj +1 ) V S (i) i S V S = V S (1),..., V S (r) i S j V S (i) = V (A luj ) i {1,..., S } G [V S (i)] i {1,..., 2 S } i 2 S + 1,..., r G [V S (i + 1)] (i + 1) S r(u) G [V S (i+1)] = G [V S (i)] r(u) u V S (i) v u G (A luj 1) \ G (A luj ) j {1,..., V } u A luj {u, v} A luj V S (i) = V (A luj ) p(u) S {u, v} v V S (i) p(u) G [V S (i+1)]

71 s(v j, u j ) j {1,..., V } G [V S (i + 1)] G [V S (i)] u j v V S (i) i v j v j G (A luj ) s(v j, u j ) v j u V S (i) = V (A luj ) v j G (A luj ) u A luj {v j, u} A luj (i + 1) S G [V S (i + 1)] S (S 1, S 2 ) S 0 v V S u u i {1,..., V 1} E(S, S 0 S i 1 + 1) = = E(S, S 0 S i 1 + S i ) = A lui+1 1 i = V E(S, S 0 S V ) = A r S S 2 S S = G (E, 1) k j > 2 S G k (j +1) p(u i ) i {i,..., V } G (A lui 1) G (A lui 1) < k p(u i ) k G (A lui 1) = k u i G (A lui ) = G (A lui 1) {u i } G (A lui ) = k + 1 u i G (A lui ) = G (A lui 1) G (E, l ui ) = G (A lui ) + 1 = k + 1 S k (G 1, S1, S1 ) (G 2, S2, S2 ) (G 1, S1, S1 ) (G 2, S2, S2 ) (G 1, S1, S1 ) r (G 2, S2, S2 ) ϕ : V (G 2 ) V (G 1 ) v V (G 1 ) G 2 [ϕ 1 (v)] {v, u} E(G 1 ) G 2 [ϕ 1 (v) ϕ 1 (u)] ϕ(s 2 ) = S 1

72 ϕ(s 2 ) = S 1 G 1, G 2 G 1 G 2 (G 1,, ) r (G 2,, ) G G G G/e e = {x, y} u e ϕ : V (G) V (G/e) ϕ(x) = ϕ(y) = u e ϕ(u) = u u V (G) V (G/e) ϕ (G/e,, ) r (G,, ) G 1, G 2 ϕ : V (G 2 ) V (G 1 ) (G 1,, ) r (G 2,, ) G 2 G 2 G 1 σ : V (G 2) V (G 1 ) x, y V (G 2) {x, y} E(G 2) {σ(x), σ(y)} E(G 1 ) v V (G 1 ) G 2 [ϕ 1 (v)] u v σ(u v ) = v σ {x, y} E(G 1 ) G 2 [ϕ 1 (v) ϕ 1 (u)] σ (G 1, S1, S1 ) (G 2, S2, S2 ) (G 1, S1, S1 ) r (G 2, S2, S2 ) (G 1, S1, S1 )) (G 2, S2, S2 )) E = A 1,..., A r (E2, E2 ) G 2 = (G 2, S2, S2 ) k (E1, E1 ) G 1 = (G 2, S2, S2 ) k ϕ (G 1, S1, S1 ) r(g 2, S2, S2 ) ψ ϕ ψ(u 2 ) = u 1 ψ(u 2 ) = u 1 ψ (G 1, S 1 {u 1 }, S 1 {u 1 }) r (G 2, S 2 {u 2 }, S 2 {u 2 }) f = {x, y} E(G 1 ) E f E(G 2 ) ψ 1 (x) ψ 1 (y) E f e f E = {e f f E(G 1 )} E = A 1 E,..., A r E G 1 i {1,..., r 1} G 1 (E, i) G 2 (E, i)

73 v v v v v A (G, {v}, {v}) (C[, 2]) D 1 = O 1 O 12 O 1 O 2,..., O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 10 : A v O 11 : B v O 12 : C v D 1 (C[, 2]) D 1 (C[, 2]) D 1 (C[, 2])

74 v v v v v v v v v v v v B (G,, {v}) v v v v v v C (G, {v}, ) G C[, 2] G G

75 B C G C[, 2] B 4 B 0 B 0 B 1 B 3 B 4 x B 2 w c 1 c 2 B2 c 3 c 4 B 3 B 4 y F 1 F2 F 4 G C[, 2] B 0 B 4 B 1, B 2 B 3 F 1, F 2 F 4

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k k ΚΕΦΑΛΑΙΟ 1 G = (V, E) V E V V V G E G e = {v, u} E v u e v u G G V (G) E(G) n(g) = V (G) m(g) = E(G) G S V (G) S G N G (S) = {u V (G)\S v S : {v, u} E(G)} G v S v V (G) N G (v) = N G ({v}) x V (G)